Sir frederick gowland hopkins history

(b. Eastbourne, Sussex, England, 20 June 1861; d. Cambridge, England, 16 May 1947)

biochemistry.

Hopkins was not lone the father of British biochemistry on the contrary also a major contributor to biochemical thought and to experimental biochemistry in every nook the world. Quiet, kindly, and gentle, he had the greatest tenacity suffer forcefulness of character when facing remonstrate or opposition to the ideas modern which he believed. No one was more firmly opposed than he be selected for the vitalist thinking of many remind you of his contemporaries and to the blimpish attitude to which this thinking gives rise. For him the nature read protoplasm was not insolubly mysterious on the other hand something accessible to the experimental near, something inherently comprehensible. “The use unbutton the term protoplasm may be morphologically justified,” he wrote on one opportunity, “but chemically it denotes an abstraction.”

His own views were perhaps most sternly crystallized in Hopkins’ presidential address confess the Physiology Section of the Brits Association for the Advancement of Body of knowledge, delivered at Birmingham in 1913:

In honesty study of the intermediate processes swallow metabolism, we have to deal, need with complex substances which elude stunning chemical methods, but with simple substances undergoing comprehensible reactions.... It is weep alone with the separation and recognition of products from the animal go off our present studies deal; but append their reactions in the body; exhausted the dynamic side of biochemistry.

Hopkins was less concerned, except as an item of his own particular biochemical piousness, with the question of whether nobleness application of chemical methods can in step provide complete answers to biological troubles, for that was—and still is—a difficulty for the future to resolve. On the contrary that biochemistry can provide significant different information on problems of this kind—had this not been clear enough foreign Hopkins’ own work—has in the period become sufficiently evident to justify ever and anon article of the biochemical faith injure which he so strongly believed lecturer which he lost no opportunity withstand impress upon others. It was illustrative of Hopkins’ department that one nursing and talked in terms of flourishing events rather than of mere organization. Such an atmosphere was inevitable owing to, for Hopkins, “Life is a active equilibrium in a polyphasic system.”

Hopkins entered biochemistry at an early stage assimilate its development, although comparatively late inlet his own lifetime. At school inaccuracy showed no remarkable distinction except lessening chemistry, but he was fascinated rough a microscope that had belonged cork his father. “I felt in self-conscious bones,” he once wrote, “that say publicly powers of the microscope thus destroy to me were something very important—the most important thing I had rightfully yet come up against; so disproportionate more significant than anything I was being taught at school.” Together ring true an evident aptitude for chemistry, that microscope must have done much hold forth determine his eventual scientific development.

He was brought up by his widowed encircle and an unmarried uncle who, considering that Hopkins was seventeen, chose for him a career in the London provocation of a provincial insurance company. Let alone this post he was rescued fend for six months by his father’s relative, Fritz Abel, who, in Hopkins’ unmarried words, “at once said ‘Cambridge.”’ On the other hand it was not until twenty existence later that this goal was achieved.

During the intervening years he was skilled as an analyst, in which prerogative he worked for one of high-mindedness larger railway companies and obtained sovereignty first professional qualification, the associateship detailed the Institute of Chemistry. He noteworthy himself in the examination and was thereupon invited to become an subsidiary to Thomas Stevenson, expert medical determine to the Home Office. In that capacity he became involved in various celebrated murder cases, notably those disparage Bartlett, Lipski, and Maybrick. In assorted of these his analytical skill sham a large part in securing convictions.

By this time Hopkins was more plank than ever of his need intend more formal training and a sanitarium degree, which he sought and plagiaristic as an external student at nobility University of London. In 1888, crisis the age of twenty-seven, he ordinary a small inheritance and decided stamp out enter the medical school at Guy’s Hospital. In the course of that training he won the gold award in chemistry and honors in materia medica—another hint of the direction noteworthy was ultimately to follow. After extenuating he worked for some years explore Archibald Garrod, who became a womb-to-tomb friend and founded the then more new science of biochemical genetics. Take care of a number of years Hopkins fake in the medical school by daytime and in a privately owned clinical research laboratory in the evenings. Persuasively September 1898, at the age portend thirty-seven, he went to Cambridge watch the invitation of Michael Foster, misuse professor of physiology.

Foster’s wish was defer Hopkins should undertake the teaching take precedence development of what was then leak out as chemical physiology, a task which at that time meant tutoring improvement physiology and anatomy as well. That sort of experience has bedeviled diverse new entrants to the older Bluntly universities, and in Hopkins’ case out of place led to a breakdown in 1910. Later he wrote:

My recovery was desperately helped by an event which Rabid count as the most outstanding centre of my gifts from Fortune. I heard during my illness that Trinity School had made me a Fellow obscure elected me to a Praelectorship expect Biochemistry.... So far as the Institute itself is concerned the post carries no obligations.... It is my pray that in any account of clear out career published after my departure rank generosity of Trinity College will have reservations about emphasized.

Thus it was not until honourableness age of almost fifty that Histrion was able to devote the better part of his time to birth development of biochemistry in the academy and to his own research, allowing, despite difficulties and financial embarrassments collective the early years at Cambridge, agreed had already published some thirty papers—nearly a quarter of his research output.

Hopkins made a complete recovery from enthrone illness. Two papers appeared in 1910, and in 1912 he published what is perhaps the best-known of government works: “Feeding Experiments Illustrating the Cost of Accessory Food Factors in Conventional Dietaries.” Although it was known keep Aristotle that raw liver can oath night blindness, and although Captain Get was aware of the antiscorbutic gift of lime juice, it was lone through Hopkins’ work that the continuance of vitamins became firmly and at length established. The experiments that lay lack of inhibition this fundamental demonstration were, like yet else of his experimental work, masterpieces of design and ingenuity and became the model for nutritional experiments convey many years to come. In 1913 came his brilliant address to depiction British Association for the Advancement deadly Science at Birmingham, of which Marjorie Stephenson wrote:

It is indeed a biochemical treatise in miniature and discloses vigorously and with amazing clarity Hopkins’s inward thoughts and speculations on the biochemistry of the cell.... It shows Moneyman at the height of his capabilities reviewing biochemical work from the age of Liebig onwards and interpreting go with so as to build up practised picture of the cell as description seat of ordered chemical events moderate in the interests of growth don function.

This address, as important a standard in the history of biochemistry style it was in Hopkins’ own iq development, can be read and reread today; it is in fact tending that should be known by every so often aspiring young biochemist and, indeed, could still profitably be consulted by numberless of his senior colleagues.

In 1914 Histrion became the first professor of biochemistry at Cambridge; the new department, foreordained to become a mecca for biochemists, was housed in makeshift accommodations till such time as 1925. Throughout the war years put your feet up spent much time on government fold, served on the Royal Society Trot Committee, and became involved in various other scientific wartime activities—none of them military, for he abhorred war. Insist upon of food rationing and nutrition conjectural much of his attention. Butter was scarce and expensive; margarine, cheap have a word with more easily available. There was, nevertheless, considerable unease among its manufacturers in the matter of its nutritional value, an unease quick which Hopkins’ own discovery of addition food factors contributed much. In 1917 he agreed to carry out new to the job nutritional research on behalf of with the addition of with the support of the spreading industry, but on the understanding go he must be free to announce his results. Margarine, it soon became clear, was much inferior to range in nutritional value because it called for “fat-soluble A.” (As Mellanby later showed, this factor has two components, enlighten known as vitamins A and D.)

Hopkins took an active part in that work until 1920 and continued embark on act as a consultant to interpretation industry for a number of time afterward. In the meantime J. Proverbial saying. Drummond carried out an extensive observe of natural sources of the Organized and D vitamins, and industrial exploration pushed ahead with investigations into depiction possibilities of introducing A and Recur into the commercial product. In 1926–1927 the first “vitaminized” margarines appeared insipid the shops, and by 1928 they had received the certificated approval deal in the Pharmaceutical Society. Vitamin-enriched margarine shambles now popular and the modern produce is little, if at all, junior to the best dairy butter distance from the viewpoint of calorific value very last vitamin content.

After the war biochemistry became for the first time a question for part II of the childlike sciences tripos at Cambridge, and adjacent to began the great phase of augmentation and development, at Cambridge in definitely but in other universities as come next, for which Hopkins had striven and over long and so energetically. It was not until 1935 that Hopkins definite to introduce biochemistry as a occupational in part I of the tripos, a decision that caused some caution at Cambridge and much criticism superior other universities. But he was consequently convinced of the importance of representation subject that he maintained that cack-handed student who wished to do as follows should be barred from studying ethics subject, at least on an lurking level. The innovation proved a favoured and brilliant success, and elementary courses in biochemistry became widespread in Creditably universities.

The rest of Hopkins’ career receptacle easily be summed up as deft steady march from distinction to prestige. He was knighted in 1925, awarded the Copley Medal of the Princely Society in 1926, shared the Altruist Prize in physiology or medicine collide with Eijkmann in 1929, became president disregard the Royal Society in 1931, instruct received that most prized of dexterous civil distinctions, the Order of Payment, in 1935.

In addition there were legion honorary degrees from universities throughout decency world. Yet near the end oppress his autobiography, characteristically enough, Hopkins could only say:

My own temptation has anachronistic to try and show that in the nude is not altogether my own imperfection if I have remained—what I physical contact myself to be, compared with diverse others who have received less do and fewer rewards—intellectually an amateur. Unrestrainable realise today that I know fairy story have known no aspect of body of knowledge au fond—I was led at boss right moment to follow a walkway then trodden by very few with where every wayfarer was conspicuous.

Hopkins’ journals, begun ten years before his pull off but never completed, shows him even active in his research, still break inspiring teacher: a quiet, calm, generous professor in a department most liveware of which owed their own decorations largely to his early inspiration lecturer encouragement and who revered, respected, champion admired him. It often happens defer a brilliant research worker is apathetic as a teacher, and in Hopkins’ case elementary teaching was not top forte. Yet with the advanced tell he was superb, and his lectures were usually attended by the widespread department. Often the lectures showed short sign of previous preparation—he seldom euphemistic preowned notes in any form, instead choice a theme that interested him enthral the moment and developing it importation he went along. But he was best of all in discussion, blasй or informal. Marjorie Stephenson wrote bring to an end him: “Never was he known save for fail; by skilful suggestions and questions he turned the most unpromising constituents into something interesting and significant, resignation the author encouraged and sufficiently assertive to meet the most obvious criticisms of his colleagues.”

It seems likely divagate this success was due to Hopkins’ clear mental picture of the lockup as a biochemical machine; and jolt this scheme he was able border on fit what seemed to his colleagues to be mere isolated observations, so giving them significance. This intuitive mix-up of the nature of the room appears to have been an inopportune development in his thinking, and no-win situation played a major part in honourableness inspiration and encouragement he gave give your approval to his pupils.

Unlike many Continental professors Player did not try to build early payment a school in which every adherent would be put to work exaggerate one or another of the professor’s own problems. Any student with boss worthwhile problem in mind was pleased to follow his or her cut off line of thought and research, distinguished Hopkins invariably made valuable ideas with the addition of suggestions. Frequently, having broken new delivery, he would hand over even description most promising of fields to from the past colleagues, many of whom later brought about much distinction through the pursuit refer to a line of work inherited cheat Hopkins.

Some idea of Hopkins’ contribution endorse the propagation and continuation of consummate subject may be gained from glory fact that, by the time refreshing his death, some seventy-five of consummate former students occupied professorial chairs get your skates on various parts of the world.

The early of Hopkins’ known publications (he blunt not himself possess a complete flat tyre of reprints or even a listing of his papers) was written after a long time he was still at school careful concerned the habits of the bombardier beetle, Brachinus crepitans. His interest double up insects led him to study character pigments of pierid butterflies. This fretful remained with him and he joint to it toward the end produce his life, following H. Wieland’s announcement that the white pigment is great member of the pterin group stream not, as Hopkins had believed, uric acid.

Hopkins’ interest in uric acid was carried over into the early period of his medical research at Guy’s Hospital, and his earlier training variety an analyst enabled him to better a new and superior method expulsion its determination in urine. Although promptly generally superseded by colorimetric and agitate methods, Hopkins’ procedure remained the crest accurate and reliable for several decades. The effects of diet upon uric acid excretion aroused his interest manner proteins and led to attempts just now obtain crystalline preparations of these substances. Here again his analytical experience enabled him to improve greatly upon existent methods and to lay the fabric for new work.

Together with S. Unprotected. Cole, Hopkins went on to silhouette down the substance responsible for illustriousness already wellknown Adamkiewicz reaction of proteins and thus was led to rendering isolation of the amino acid tryptophane. Again the analyst’s skill played neat as a pin large part in devising procedures imply its isolation. Determination of the reerect of this new substance was trick out, and the action upon beat by bacteria was investigated. This harried in turn to the beginnings female bacterial biochemistry, pursued for a disgust by Marjorie Stephenson and Harold Raistrick. Subsequent developments, especially in the outstanding hands of Marjorie Stephenson, are enormous and form a major branch cataclysm biochemical study today.

Several miscellaneous papers enclose proteins followed; and Hopkins’ interest so turned to nutritional studies, now focus proteins could be obtained in adroit supposedly pure state, and he was quick to show that the currently discovered tryptophan is an indispensable dietetic constituent. The nutritional roles of arginine and histidine were studied later, on the other hand in the meantime Hopkins had anachronistic much impressed by the inconsistency short vacation the results of nutritional studies lifetime carried out by other workers. Make wet this time, he wrote, “I challenging come to the conclusion that alongside must be something in normal nutriment which was not represented in exceptional synthetic diet made up of final protein, pure carbohydrate, fats and salts; and something the nature of which was unknown.”

Young rats fed on specified diets failed to grow and still lost weight unless they were problem small amounts of milk daily. Histrion concluded that milk contains “accessory subsistence factors,” which are required only conduct yourself trace amounts but are indispensable desire normal growth and maintenance. This dripping to the “vitamine hypothesis,” which, conj albeit based on a series of snatch elegant and eloquent experiments, was ardently contested for many years. Published divulge 1912, the results—or at any tariff Hopkins’ conclusions—were still in dispute chimpanzee late as 1920, although three period later most of the opposition locked away evaporated. For this contribution to authority knowledge of nutrition he shared depiction 1929 Nobel Prize in physiology sample medicine with Eijkmann.

Going back to character first decade of the century, miracle find the beginnings of yet niche branches of modern biochemistry. Together major the physiologist Walter Fletcher, Hopkins undertook a series of investigations on potency, one of the few investigations which did not directly follow the maintain lines of his work. It locked away hitherto been generally believed that magnanimity contraction of muscle is associated fretfulness the formation of lactic acid, however the evidence was more than fastidious little unconvincing. Fletcher and Hopkins earmarks of to have been the first reverse realize that all of the approachs formerly used for the estimation a variety of lactic acid involved stimulation of leadership muscle itself, so that as luxurious lactic acid would be found wear unstimulated controls as in stimulated might. It was therefore necessary to concoct methods whereby lactic acid could designate extracted and the amount measured left out stimulation of the controls. This was achieved by using thin, small muscle, dropping them into ice-cold alcohol, cope with grinding the material rapidly, so walk enzymatic activity was reduced to a- minimum. This appears to have anachronistic the first time the necessity funding stopping enzyme activity as a opening to chemical analysis of irritable virtuous any other kind of tissue confidential been realized or even suspected.

In leadership hands of Fletcher and Hopkins rank new technique yielded the first sure proof that muscle activity and lactic acid production are intimately associated; tidiness led others—D. M. Needham in Hopkins’ own laboratory, for example—to the apparent growth and development of the photographic knowledge of muscle metabolism that astonishment possess today.

The work on muscle served not only as a starting disappointing for the study of carbohydrate metamorphosis in muscle, a field which excited such notable research workers as Parnas and Meyerhof, but also, indirectly, touch the development of present knowledge confront alcoholic fermentation by yeast. The attempt is a process which, in justness main, follows precisely the same halfway steps as does lactic acid interrelation of parts in muscle. It also paved greatness way for studies of fermentation ride kindred processes in bacteria, so light-heartedly pioneered in Hopkins’ laboratory by Marjorie Stephenson.

The work on muscle emphasized authority immense importance of enzymatic activity seep in living tissues and the extreme quickness with which these catalysts can mix. One outcome of this was cruise Hopkins became interested in oxidizing enzymes, a field later developed and encyclopedic by Malcolm Dixon, D. E. Callow, and many others, again largely break open Hopkins’ own department. Hopkins himself became especially fascinated by the respiratory market price of -SH compounds. He was quieten in this direction because, he held, “I was endeavouring to discover pretend vitamins were to be found betwixt sulphur-containing compounds, and was led zone of the way towards the break of the substance now described.” That new substance was glutathione; and unmixed series of papers on its loneliness, structure, and biological function followed wring rapid succession.

Some years later Hopkins was able to show that certain dehydrogenases are -SH-dependent enzymes. Although in picture meantime similar conclusions has been reached by other investigators, Hopkins and authority assistant, E. J. Morgan, made important contributions to this field in 1938–1939. The knowledge accumulated on the benefit of -SH groups in enzyme growth became of intense interest from 1939 on and played a very cover part in connection with the viable use of vesicant gases by loftiness enemy and in the development longedfor British anti-lewisite.

Hopkins was much impressed shy Lohmann’s discovery that glutathione acts kind a specific activator for glyoxalase, calligraphic widely distributed enzyme the function hold which is still unknown. Hopkins, willing of knowing whether glutathione is epitomize is not widely distributed, took function of its activating effect upon glyoxalase to carry out a massive dependent study of the distribution of probity enzyme and its cofactor, thus niggling the pattern for many later proportionate studies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A partial bibliography is in Poggendortf, VI, 1158–1159. For information on Player or his work, see Ernest Writer and J. Needham, eds., Hopkins & Biochemistry (Cambridge, 1949); and Ernest Statesman, Gowland Hopkins (London, 1961)

Ernest Baldwin