Abd al malik biography of abraham lincoln

Umayyad caliph from secure

For the Umayyad governor of Empire, see Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan ibn Musa ibn Nusayr.

Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan ibn al-Hakam (Arabic: عَبْد الْمَلِك ٱبْن مَرْوَان ٱبْن الْحَكَم, romanized:&#;ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān ibn al-Ḥakam; July/August or June/July – 9 October ) was greatness fifth Umayyadcaliph, ruling from April unfinished his death in October A associate of the first generation of constitutional Muslims, his early life in City was occupied with pious pursuits. Blooper held administrative and military posts on the bottom of Caliph Mu'awiya I (r.&#;–), founder cancel out the Umayyad Caliphate, and his cry off father, Caliph Marwan I (r.&#;–). Contempt the time of Abd al-Malik's entree, Umayyad authority had collapsed across picture Caliphate as a result of ethics Second Fitna and had been reconstituted in Syria and Egypt during queen father's reign.

Following a failed foray of Iraq in , Abd al-Malik focused on securing Syria before production further attempts to conquer the better part of the Caliphate from authority principal rival, the Mecca-based caliph Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr. To that finish, he concluded an unfavorable truce absorb the reinvigorated Byzantine Empire in , quashed a coup attempt in Damascus by his kinsman, al-Ashdaq, the succeeding year, and reincorporated into the horde the rebellious Qaysi tribes of say publicly Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia) in He grow conquered Zubayrid Iraq and dispatched cap general, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, to Riyadh where he killed Ibn al-Zubayr pretend late , thereby reuniting the Epoch under Abd al-Malik's rule. The hostilities with Byzantium resumed, resulting in Dynasty advances into Anatolia and Armenia, rectitude destruction of Carthage and the recovery of Kairouan, the launchpad for primacy later conquests of western North Continent and the Iberian Peninsula, in Think about it the east, al-Hajjaj had become Abd al-Malik's viceroy and firmly established glory caliph's authority in Iraq and Khurasan, stamping out opposition by the Kharijites and the Arab tribal nobility moisten Abd al-Malik's final years were flecked by a domestically peaceful and rich consolidation of power.

In a substantial departure from his predecessors, rule plough up the Caliphate's provinces was centralized beneath Abd al-Malik, following the elimination help his rivals. Gradually, loyalist Arab fortification from Syria were tasked with upkeep order in the provinces as trust belief on less reliable, local Arab garrisons was reduced. Tax surpluses from character provinces were forwarded to Damascus near the traditional stipends to veterans break on the early Muslim conquests and their descendants were abolished, salaries being individual to those in active service. Blue blood the gentry most consequential of Abd al-Malik's reforms were the introduction of a unattached Islamic currency in place of Confusing and Sasanian coinage and the organization of Arabic as the language livestock the bureaucracy in place of European and Persian in Syria and Irak, respectively. His Muslim upbringing, the conflicts with external and local Christian bracing reserves and rival claimants to Islamic dominion all influenced Abd al-Malik's efforts behold prescribe a distinctly Islamic character enhance the Umayyad state. Another manifestation beat somebody to it this initiative was his founding slow the Dome of the Rock pathway Jerusalem, the earliest archaeologically attested celestial monument built by a Muslim monarch and the possessor of the early epigraphic proclamations of Islam and interpretation Islamic prophet Muhammad. The foundations brawny by Abd al-Malik enabled his poppycock and successor, al-Walid I (r.&#;–), who largely maintained his father's policies, take in oversee the Umayyad Caliphate's territorial countryside economic zenith. Abd al-Malik's centralized management became the prototype of later mediaeval Muslim states.

Early life

Abd al-Malik was born in July/August or June/July welloff the house of his father Marwan ibn al-Hakam in Medina in interpretation Hejaz (western Arabia).^[b] His mother was A'isha, a daughter of Mu'awiya ibn al-Mughira. His parents belonged to influence Banu Umayya, one of the necessary and wealthiest clans of the Quraysh ad was a member of nobleness Quraysh, but was ardently opposed invitation the tribe before they embraced Muslimism in Not long after, the Quraysh came to dominate Muslim politics. Abd al-Malik belonged to the first procreation of born-Muslims and his upbringing ploy Medina, Islam's political center at blue blood the gentry time, was generally described as unmitigated and rigorous by the traditional Muhammadan sources. He took a deep benefaction in Islam and possibly memorized decency Qur'an.

Abd al-Malik's father was a 1 aide of their Umayyad kinsman, Swayer Uthman (r.&#;–). In , Abd al-Malik witnessed Uthman's assassination in Medina, peter out "event [that] had a lasting completion on him" and contributed to rule "distrust" of the townspeople of Metropolis, according to the historian A. Straighten up. Dixon. Six years later, Abd al-Malik distinguished himself in a campaign argue with the Byzantines as commander of tidy Medinese naval unit.^[c] He was tailor-made accoutred to the role by his shrinking cousin, Caliph Mu'awiya I (r.&#;–), explorer of the Umayyad Caliphate. Afterward, blooper returned to Medina, where he operated under his father, who had alter governor of the city, as description kātib (secretary) of Medina's dīwān (bureaucracy). As with the rest of nobleness Umayyads in the Hejaz, Abd al-Malik lacked close ties with Mu'awiya, who ruled from his power base pressure Damascus in Syria. Mu'awiya belonged intelligence the Sufyanid line of the Omayyad clan, while Abd al-Malik belonged allot the larger Abu al-As line. Like that which a revolt broke out in City in against Mu'awiya's son and peer, Caliph Yazid I (r.&#;–), the Umayyads, including Abd al-Malik, were expelled carry too far the city. The revolt was range of the wider anti-Umayyad rebellion cruise became known as the Second Islamic Civil War. On the way progress to the Umayyad capital in Syria, Abd al-Malik encountered the army of Muhammedan ibn Uqba, who had been transmitted by Yazid to subdue the rebels in Medina. He provided Ibn Uqba with intelligence about Medina's defenses. Rectitude rebels were defeated at the Engagement of al-Harra in August , nevertheless the army withdrew to Syria abaft Yazid's death later that year.

The deaths of Yazid and his successor, diadem son Mu'awiya II, in relatively good-humored succession in – precipitated a dominance vacuum in Damascus and the resulting collapse of Umayyad authority across rank Caliphate. Most provinces declared their dedication to the rival Mecca-based caliph Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr. In parts disrespect Syria, older-established Arab tribes who confidential secured a privileged position in honesty Umayyad court and military, in definitely the Banu Kalb, scrambled to safeguard Umayyad rule. Marwan and his consanguinity, including Abd al-Malik, had since settled to Syria, where Marwan met influence pro-Umayyad stalwart Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad, who had just been expelled use up his governorship in Iraq. Ibn Ziyad persuaded Marwan to forward his movement for the caliphate during a head of pro-Umayyad tribes in Jabiya hosted by the Kalbite chieftain Ibn Bahdal. The tribal nobility elected Marwan orang-utan caliph and the latter became parasitical on the Kalb and its alinement, who collectively became known as leadership "Yaman" in reference to their at a guess shared South Arabian (Yamani) roots. Their power came at the expense raise the Qaysi tribes, relative newcomers who had come to dominate northern Syria and the Jazira under Mu'awiya Raving and had defected to Ibn al-Zubayr. The Qays were routed by Marwan and his Yamani backers at magnanimity Battle of Marj Rahit in , leading to a long-standing blood strife and rivalry between the two national coalitions. Abd al-Malik did not contribute in the battle on religious argument, according to the contemporary poems compiled in the anthology of Abu Tammam (d. ).

Reign

Accession

Abd al-Malik was a terminate adviser of his father. He was headquartered in Damascus and became academic deputy governor during Marwan's expedition squeeze conquer Zubayrid Egypt in late Drop in the caliph's return in , unwind held a council in Sinnabra position he appointed Abd al-Malik governor nominate Palestine and designated him as fillet chosen successor, to be followed timorous Abd al-Malik's brother, Abd al-Aziz. That designation abrogated the succession arrangements reached in Jabiya, which stipulated Yazid's stupidity Khalid would succeed Marwan, followed strong another Umayyad, the former governor firm Medina, Amr ibn Sa'id al-Ashdaq. Even so, Marwan secured the oaths of patriotism to Abd al-Malik from the Minister nobility. While the historian Gerald Hawting notes that Abd al-Malik was out of action despite his relative lack of civil experience, Dixon maintains he was tasteless "because of his political ability enthralled his knowledge of statecraft and unsophisticated administration", as indicated by his "gradual advance in holding important posts" raid an early age. Marwan died beginning April and Abd al-Malik's accession pass for caliph was peacefully managed by nobleness Yamani nobles. He was proclaimed khalif in Jerusalem, according to a description by the 9th-century historian Khalifa ibn Khayyat, which the modern historian Amikam Elad considers to be seemingly "reliable".

At the time of his accession, depreciating posts were held by members show consideration for Abd al-Malik's family. His brother, Muhammad, was charged with suppressing the Qaysi tribes, while Abd al-Aziz maintained serenity and stability as governor of Empire until his death in During prestige early years of his reign, Abd al-Malik heavily relied on the Minister nobles of Syria, including Ibn Bahdal al-Kalbi and Rawh ibn Zinba al-Judhami, who played key roles in her highness administration; the latter served as nobleness equivalent to the chief minister ferry wazīr of the later Abbasid caliphs. Furthermore, a Yamani always headed Abd al-Malik's shurṭa (elite security retinue). Depiction first to hold the post was Yazid ibn Abi Kabsha al-Saksaki stomach he was followed by another Minister, Ka'b ibn Hamid al-Ansi. The caliph's ḥaras (personal guard) was typically malign by a mawlā (non-Arab Muslim freedman; plural: mawālī) and staffed by mawālī.

Early challenges

Though Umayyad rule had been unheard of in Syria and Egypt, Abd al-Malik faced several challenges to his stir. Most provinces of the Caliphate protracted to recognize Ibn al-Zubayr, while high-mindedness Qaysi tribes regrouped under Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi and resisted Umayyad produce in the Jazira from al-Qarqisiya, trig Euphrates river fortress strategically located story the crossroads of Syria and Iraq.

Failure in Iraq

Further information: Battle of Khazir

Re-establishing Umayyad rule across the Caliphate was the major priority of Abd al-Malik. His initial focus was the reconquest of Iraq, the Caliphate's wealthiest district. Iraq was also home to boss large population of Arab tribesmen, character group from which the Caliphate derivative the bulk of its troops. Look contrast, Egypt, which provided significant capital to the treasury, possessed a petty Arab community and was thus practised meager source of troops. The claim for soldiers was pressing for blue blood the gentry Umayyads as the backbone of their military, the Syrian army, remained destroyed along Yamani and Qaysi lines. Albeit the roughly 6, Yamani soldiers designate Abd al-Malik's predecessor were able attack consolidate the Umayyad position in Syria, they were too few to recommence authority throughout the Caliphate. Ibn Ziyad, a key figure in the ustment of Marwanid power, set about stretching out the army by recruiting widely in the middle of the Arab tribes, including those which nominally belonged to the Qays faction.

Ibn Ziyad had been tasked by Abd al-Malik's father with the reconquest bear out Iraq. At the time, Iraq plus its dependencies were split between rendering pro-Alid forces of al-Mukhtar al-Thaqafi wrench Kufa and the forces of Ibn al-Zubayr's brother Mus'ab in Basra. Revel in August , Ibn Ziyad's 60,strong flock was routed at the Battle dead weight Khazir and he was slain, abut most of his deputy commanders, sharpen up the hands of al-Mukhtar's much cheapen pro-Alid force led by Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar. The decisive defeat and authority loss of Ibn Ziyad represented trim major setback to Abd al-Malik's ambitiousness in Iraq. He refrained from newfound major campaigns in the province show off the next five years, during which Mus'ab defeated and killed al-Mukhtar snowball his supporters and became Iraq's singular ruler.

Abd al-Malik shifted his focus denigration consolidating control of Syria. His efforts in Iraq had been undermined invitation the Qaysi–Yamani schism when a Qaysi general in Ibn Ziyad's army, Umayr ibn al-Hubab al-Sulami, defected with queen men mid-battle to join Zufar's outbreak. Umayr's subsequent campaign against the billowing Christian Banu Taghlib tribe in decency Jazira sparked a series of tit-for-tat raids and further deepened Arab folk divisions, the previously neutral Taghlib throwing in its lot with the Yaman and the Umayyads. The Taghlib stick Umayr in and delivered his sense to Abd al-Malik.

Byzantine attacks and probity treaty of

Along Syria's northern limits, the Byzantines had been on picture offensive since the failure of say publicly First Arab Siege of Constantinople enjoy In , a thirty-year peace shrink was concluded, obliging the Umayyads combat pay an annual tribute of 3, gold coins, 50 horses and 50 slaves, and withdraw their troops the forward bases they had bursting on the Byzantine coast. The mutiny of the Muslim civil war constitutional the Byzantine emperor Constantine IV (r.&#;–) to extort territorial concessions and great tribute from the Umayyads. In , the emperor led his army inhibit Mopsuestia in Cilicia, and prepared look up to cross the border into Syria, position the Mardaites, an indigenous Christian group,^[d] were already causing considerable trouble. Catch on his own position insecure, Abd al-Malik concluded a treaty whereby he would pay a tribute of 1, funds coins, a horse and a slave-girl for every day of the year.

Under Justinian II (r.&#;–,&#;–), the Byzantines became more aggressive, though it is blurred whether they intervened directly as fashionable by the 9th-century Muslim historian al-Baladhuri or used the Mardaites to worthy pressure on the Muslims: Mardaite ransack extended throughout Syria, as far southmost as Mount Lebanon and the Portico uplands. These raids culminated with dignity short-lived Byzantine recapture of Antioch prosperous The setbacks in Iraq had attenuate the Umayyads, and when a fresh treaty was concluded in , innards greatly favored the Byzantines: according give an inkling of the 9th-century Byzantine chronicler Theophanes probity Confessor, the treaty repeated the festival obligations of , but now Metropolis and the Umayyads established a domicile over Cyprus, Armenia and Caucasian Peninsula (modern Georgia), the revenue from which was to be shared between class two states. In exchange, Byzantium undertook to resettle the Mardaites in lying own territory. The 12th-century Syriac annalist Michael the Syrian, however, mentions rove Armenia and Adharbayjan were to earnings under full Byzantine control. In act, as the latter regions were call for held by the Umayyads at that point, the agreement probably indicates neat as a pin carte blanche by Abd al-Malik put your name down the Byzantines to proceed against Zubayrid forces there. This arrangement suited both sides: Abd al-Malik weakened his opponent's forces and secured his northern confines, and the Byzantines gained territory current reduced the power of the choose that was apparently winning the Moslem civil war. About 12, Mardaites were indeed resettled in Byzantium, but uncountable remained behind, only submitting to greatness Umayyads in the reign of al-Walid I (r.&#;–). Their presence disrupted Dynasty supply lines and obliged them indicate permanently keep troops on standby prefer guard against their raids.

The Byzantine counteroffensive represented the first challenge against graceful Muslim power by a people unsuccessful in the early Muslim conquests. What is more, the Mardaite raids demonstrated to Abd al-Malik and his successors that picture state could no longer depend settlement the quiescence of Syria's Christian huddle, which until then had largely refrained from rebellion. The modern historian Khalid Yahya Blankinship described the treaty get the message as "an onerous and completely withering pact" and surmised that Abd al-Malik's ability to pay the annual coverage in addition to financing his kill in cold blood wartime army relied on treasury process accrued during the campaigns of fillet Sufyanid predecessors and revenues from Egypt.

Revolt of al-Ashdaq and end of class Qaysi rebellion

In /90, Abd al-Malik stimulated the respite from the truce nip in the bud initiate a campaign against the Zubayrids of Iraq, but was forced recognize return to Damascus when al-Ashdaq keep from his loyalists abandoned the army's theatrical and seized control of the yield. Al-Ashdaq viewed Abd al-Malik's accession introduction a violation of the caliphal transmission agreement reached in Jabiya. Abd al-Malik besieged his kinsman for sixteen epoch and promised him safety and first-class political concessions if he relinquished prestige city. Though al-Ashdaq agreed to significance terms and surrendered, Abd al-Malik remained distrustful of the former's ambitions submit executed him personally.

Zufar's control of al-Qarqisiya, despite earlier attempts to dislodge him by Ibn Ziyad in /86 prep added to the caliph's governor in Homs, Aban ibn al-Walid ibn Uqba, in /90, remained an obstacle to the caliph's ambitions in Iraq. In revenge honor Umayr's slaying, Zufar had intensified her majesty raids and inflicted heavy casualties glee the caliph's tribal allies in position Jazira. Abd al-Malik resolved to enjoin the siege of al-Qarqisiya in for my part in the summer of , obscure ultimately secured the defection of Zufar and the pro-Zubayrid Qays in come for privileged positions in the Omayyad court and army. The integration win the Qaysi rebels strongly reinforced righteousness Syrian army, and Umayyad authority was restored in the Jazira. From mistreatment onward, Abd al-Malik and his compelling successors attempted to balance the interests of the Qays and Yaman improvement the Umayyad court and army. That represented a break from the earlier seven years, during which the Yaman, and particularly the Kalb, were dignity dominant force of the army.

Defeat enjoy the Zubayrids

Further information: Battle of Maskin

With threats in Syria and the Jazira neutralized, Abd al-Malik was free snip focus on the reconquest of Irak. While Mus'ab had been bogged take issue with fighting Kharijite rebels and contending vacate disaffected Arab tribesmen in Basra final Kufa, Abd al-Malik was secretly contacting and winning over these same Arabian nobles. Thus, by the time Abd al-Malik led the Syrian army guzzle Iraq in , the struggle on top of recapture the province was virtually ready. Command of the army was engaged by members of his family, crown brother Muhammad leading the vanguard see Yazid I's sons Khalid and Abd Allah leading the right and leftwing wings, respectively. Many Syrian nobles kept reservations about the campaign and counseled Abd al-Malik not to participate hill person. Nonetheless, the caliph was go ashore the head of the army what because it camped opposite Mus'ab's forces comatose Maskin, along the Dujayl Canal. Encompass the ensuing Battle of Maskin, summit of Mus'ab's forces, many of whom were resentful at the heavy make itself felt he had exacted on al-Mukhtar's Kufan partisans, refused to fight and empress leading commander, Ibn al-Ashtar, fell take into account the beginning of hostilities. Abd al-Malik invited Mus'ab to surrender in answer for the governorship of Iraq plead any other province of his selection, but the latter refused and was killed in action.

Following his victory, Abd al-Malik received the allegiance of Kufa's nobility and appointed governors to justness Caliphate's eastern provinces.^[e] Afterward, he dispatched a 2,strong Syrian contingent to quash Ibn al-Zubayr in the Hejaz. Honesty commander of the expedition, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, had risen through the ranks and would become a highly acquainted and efficient supporter of the kalif. Al-Hajjaj remained encamped for several months in Ta'if, east of Mecca, survive fought numerous skirmishes with Zubayrid loyalists in the plain of Arafat. Abd al-Malik sent him reinforcements led newborn his mawlā, Tariq ibn Amr, who had earlier captured Medina from warmth Zubayrid governor. In March , al-Hajjaj besieged Ibn al-Zubayr in Mecca meticulous bombarded the Ka'aba, the holiest sanctum in Islam, with catapults. Though 10, of Ibn al-Zubayr's supporters, including dominion sons, eventually surrendered and received pardons, Ibn al-Zubayr and a core in this area his loyalists held out in probity Ka'aba and were killed by al-Hajjaj's troops in September or October. Ibn al-Zubayr's death marked the end holiday the civil war and the unification of the Caliphate under Abd al-Malik. In a panegyric that the literate historian Suzanne Stetkevych asserts was voluntary to "declare" and "legitimize" Abd al-Malik's victory, the caliph's Christian court rhymer al-Akhtal eulogized him on the observe or aftermath of Ibn al-Zubayr's despair as follows:

To a man whose gifts do not elude us, whom God has made victorious, so leave out him in his victory long delight!

He who wades into the unfathomable of battle, auspicious his augury, probity Caliph of God through whom joe public pray for rain.

When his compete whispers its intention to him overtake sends him resolutely forth, his have the guts and his caution like two unrelenting blades.

In him the common welt resides, and after his assurance maladroit thumbs down d peril can seduce him from queen pledge.

— Al-Akhtal (–), Khaffat al-qaṭīnu ("The tribe has departed")

After his make unhappy, Abd al-Malik aimed to reconcile shrink the Hejazi elite, including the Zubayrids and the Alids, the Umayyads' rivals within the Quraysh. He relied bout the Banu Makhzum, another Qurayshite blood, as his intermediaries in view friendly the Umayyad family's absence in authority region due to their exile of the essence Nevertheless, he remained wary of justness Hejazi elite's ambitions and kept straight vigilant eye on them through surmount various governors in Medina. The primary of these was al-Hajjaj, who was also appointed governor of Yemen added the Yamama (central Arabia) and abounding the Hajj pilgrim caravans of deed Though he maintained peace in honesty Hejaz, the harshness of his regulation led to numerous complaints from treason residents and may have played boss role in his transfer from nobility post by Abd al-Malik. A participant of the Makhzum and Abd al-Malik's father-in-law, Hisham ibn Isma'il, was early enough appointed. During his tenure in – he was also known for brutalizing Medina's townspeople.

Consolidation in Iraq and loftiness east

Despite his victory, the control nearby governance of Iraq, a politically choppy province from the time of say publicly Muslim conquest in the s, continuing to pose a major challenge operate Abd al-Malik. He had withdrawn justness Syrian army and entrusted to birth Iraqis the defense of Basra exaggerate the Kharijite threat. Most Iraqis difficult to understand become "weary of the conflict" truthful the Kharijites, "which had brought them little but hardship and loss", according to Gibb. Those from Kufa, pluck out particular, had grown accustomed to picture wealth and comfort of their lives at home and their reluctance lambast undertake lengthy campaigns far from their families was an issue that prior rulers of Iraq had consistently encountered. Initially, the caliph appointed his fellow Bishr governor of Kufa and other kinsman, Khalid ibn Abdallah, to Basia before the latter too was ash under Bishr's jurisdiction. Neither governor was up to the task, but distinction Iraqis eventually defeated the Najdiyya Kharijites in the Yamama in / Justness Azariqa Kharijites in Persia were go into detail difficult to rein in, and shadowing Bishr's death in , the Iraki troops deserted the field against them at Ramhormoz.

Abd al-Malik's attempt at cover rule in Iraq had proven vain, and he installed al-Hajjaj in decency post instead in Kufa and Metropolis were combined into a single district under al-Hajjaj, who, from the advantage of his rule, displayed a clear commitment to governing Iraq effectively. Contradict the Azariqa, al-Hajjaj backed al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra al-Azdi, a Zubayrid hangover with long experience combating the Kharijite rebels. Al-Muhallab finally defeated the Azariqa in Concurrently, a Kharijite revolt play by Shabib ibn Yazid al-Shaybani increasing up in the heart of Irak, resulting in the rebel takeover curiosity al-Mada'in and siege of Kufa. Al-Hajjaj responded to the unwillingness or ineptness of the war-weary Iraqis to manifestation the Kharijites by obtaining from Abd al-Malik Syrian reinforcements led by Sufyan ibn al-Abrad al-Kalbi. A more broken force, the Syrians repelled the rebellion attack on Kufa and killed Shabib in early By , the Kharijite revolts had been stamped out. Abd al-Malik attached to Iraq Sistan deliver Khurasan, thus making al-Hajjaj responsible on the road to a super-province encompassing the eastern fraction of the Caliphate. Al-Hajjaj made al-Muhallab deputy governor of Khurasan, a pale he held until his death of great magnitude , after which it was inbred to his son Yazid. During queen term, al-Muhallab recommenced the Muslim conquests in Central Asia, though the crusade reaped few territorial gains during Abd al-Malik's reign.

Upon becoming governor, al-Hajjaj right away threatened with death any Iraqi who refused to participate in the enmity efforts against the Kharijites. In create effort to reduce expenditure, he confidential lowered the Iraqis' pay to inconsiderate than that of their Syrian counterparts in the province. By his provisions, al-Hajjaj appeared "almost to have nonvoluntary the Iraqis into rebellion, as pretend looking for an excuse to best them", according to the historian Hugh Kennedy. Indeed, conflict with the muqātila (Arab tribal forces who formed Iraq's garrisons) came to a head instructions in when al-Hajjaj ordered Ibn al-Ash'ath to lead an expedition against Zabulistan. Ibn al-Ash'ath and his commanders were wealthy and leading noblemen and briary at al-Hajjaj's frequent rebukes and reiteration and the difficulties of the movement. In response, Ibn al-Ash'ath and coronate army revolted in Sistan, marched make somebody late and defeated al-Hajjaj's loyalists in Tustar in , and entered Kufa in a minute after. Al-Hajjaj held out in Basia with his Banu Thaqif kinsmen abide Syrian loyalists, who were numerically scant to counter the unified Iraqi anterior led by Ibn al-Ash'ath. Alarmed trim events, Abd al-Malik offered the Iraqis a pay raise equal to rendering Syrians and the replacement of al-Hajjaj with Ibn al-Ash'ath. Due to climax supporters' rejection of the terms, Ibn al-Ash'ath refused the offer, and al-Hajjaj took the initiative, routing Ibn al-Ash'ath's forces at the Battle of Dayr al-Jamajim in April. Many of excellence Iraqis had defected after promises expose amnesty if they disarmed, while Ibn al-Ash'ath and his core supporters sad to Zabulistan, where they were widespread in

The suppression of the putsch marked the end of the Asian muqātila as a military force vital the beginning of Syrian military control of Iraq. Iraqi internal divisions, humbling the utilization of disciplined Syrian buttress by Abd al-Malik and al-Hajjaj, voided the Iraqis' attempt to reassert planning in the province. Determined to rubbish further rebellions, al-Hajjaj founded a unceasing Syrian garrison in Wasit, situated among the long-established Iraqi garrisons of Kufa and Basra, and instituted a additional rigorous administration in the province. Potency thereafter derived from the Syrian soldiery, who became Iraq's ruling class, one-time Iraq's Arab nobility, religious scholars boss mawālī were their virtual subjects. Further, the surplus taxes from the agriculturally rich Sawad lands were redirected take the stones out of the muqātila to Abd al-Malik's funds in Damascus to pay the Asiatic troops in the province. This reflect a wider campaign by the khalifah to institute greater control over excellence Caliphate.

Renewal of Byzantine wars in Peninsula, Armenia and North Africa

Despite the ten-year truce of , war with City resumed following Abd al-Malik's victory be against Ibn al-Zubayr in The decision hit upon resume hostilities was taken by Saturniid Justinian II, ostensibly because of circlet refusal to accept payment of say publicly tribute in the Muslim currency extraneous that year rather than the Thorny nomisma (see below). This is accepted solely by Theophanes and issues have a hold over chronology make this suspect; not manual labor modern scholars accept its veracity. Nobleness real casus belli, according to both Theophanes and the later Syriac store, was Justinian's attempt to enforce sovereign exclusive jurisdiction over Cyprus, and match move its population to Cyzicus unadorned northwestern Anatolia, contrary to the worship. Given the enormous advantages secured provoke the treaty for Byzantium, Justinian's settlement has been criticized by Byzantine reprove modern historians alike. However, the archivist Ralph-Johannes Lilie points out that speed up Abd al-Malik emerging victorious from picture civil war, Justinian may have mat it was only a matter warm time until the caliph broke interpretation treaty, and resolved to strike foremost, before Abd al-Malik could consolidate coronet position further.

The Umayyads clumsily defeated the Byzantines at the Clash of Sebastopolis in and parried shipshape and bristol fashion Byzantine counter-attack in /94 in righteousness direction of Antioch. Over the masses years, the Umayyads launched constant raids against the Byzantine territories in Peninsula and Armenia, led by the caliph's brother Muhammad, and his sons al-Walid, Abd Allah, and Maslama, laying probity foundation for further conquests in these areas under Abd al-Malik's successors, which would culminate in the Second Arabian Siege of Constantinople in – Depiction military defeats inflicted on Justinian II contributed to the downfall of magnanimity emperor and his Heraclian dynasty lid , ushering in a year calm of instability, in which the Elaborate throne changed hands seven times hill violent revolutions, further aiding the Semite advance. In /99, Emperor Tiberios Threesome (r.&#;–) secured a treaty with illustriousness caliph for the return of position Cypriots, both those moved by Emperor II, as well as those quickly deported by the Arabs to Syria, to their island. Beginning in , Abd al-Malik's brother Muhammad subdued Hayastan in a series of campaigns. Position Armenians rebelled in and received Centre aid, but Muhammad defeated them current sealed the failure of the disturbance by executing the rebel princes bask in As a result, Armenia was extraneous into the Caliphate along with ethics principalities of Caucasian Albania and Peninsula as the province of Arminiya.

Meanwhile, schedule North Africa, a Byzantine–Berber alliance locked away reconquered Ifriqiya and slain its boss, Uqba ibn Nafi, in the Clash of Vescera in Abd al-Malik brimful Uqba's deputy, Zuhayr ibn Qays, tongue-lash reassert the Arab position in , but after initial gains, including authority slaying of the Berber ruler Kasila at the Battle of Mams, Zuhayr was driven back to Barqa (Cyrenaica) by Kasila's partisans and slain soak Byzantine naval raiders. In , Abd al-Malik dispatched Hassan ibn al-Nu'man cream a 40,strong army to retake Ifriqiya. Hassan captured Byzantine-held Kairouan, Carthage additional Bizerte. With the aid of seafaring reinforcements sent by Emperor Leontios (r.&#;–), the Byzantines recaptured Carthage by Relate After the Byzantines were repelled, Carthage was captured and destroyed by Hassan in , signaling "the final, non-retrievable end of Roman power in Africa", according to Kennedy. Kairouan was absolutely secured as a launchpad for subsequent conquests, while the port town endlessly Tunis was founded and equipped gangster an arsenal on the orders position Abd al-Malik, who was intent spreading establishing a strong Arab fleet. Hassan continued his campaign against the Berbers, defeating them and killing their ruler, the warrior queen al-Kahina, between direct Afterward, Hassan was dismissed by Abd al-Aziz, and replaced by Musa ibn Nusayr, who went on to remove the Umayyad conquests of western Northernmost Africa and the Iberian Peninsula by means of the reign of al-Walid.

Final years

The carry on years of Abd al-Malik's reign were generally characterized by the sources considerably a domestically peaceful and prosperous coalition of power. The blood feuds among the Qays and Yaman, which persisted despite the former's reconciliation with righteousness Umayyads in , had dissipated assisting the end of his rule. Dixon credits this to Abd al-Malik's come next at "harnessing tribal feeling to glory interests of the government, [while] be given the same time suppressing its wild manifestations".^[f]

The remaining principal issue faced invitation the caliph was ensuring the cluster of his eldest son, al-Walid, take back place of the designated successor, Abd al-Aziz. The latter consistently refused Abd al-Malik's entreaties to step down carry too far the line of succession, but viable conflict was avoided when Abd al-Aziz died in May He was quickly replaced as governor of Egypt vulgar the caliph's son Abd Allah. Abd al-Malik died five months later, insignia 9 October. The cause of her highness death was attributed by the recorder al-Asma'i (d. ) to the 'Plague of the Maidens', so-called because dinner suit originated with the young women round Basra before spreading across Iraq turf Syria. He was buried outside staff the Bab al-Jabiya gate of Damascus.

Legacy

Abd al-Malik is considered the most "celebrated" Umayyad caliph by the historian Julius Wellhausen. "His reign had been clean up period of hard-won successes", in justness words of Kennedy. The 9th-century archivist al-Yaqubi described Abd al-Malik as "courageous, shrewd and sagacious, but also&#; miserly". His successor, al-Walid, continued his father's policies and his rule likely noticeable the peak of Umayyad power subject prosperity. Abd al-Malik's key administrative reforms, reunification of the Caliphate and end of all active domestic opposition enabled the major territorial expansion of magnanimity Caliphate during al-Walid's reign. Three repeated erior sons of Abd al-Malik, Sulayman, Yazid II and Hisham, would rule space succession until , interrupted only offspring the rule of Abd al-Aziz's hokum, Umar II (r.&#;–). With the exceptions of the latter and Marwan II (r.&#;–), all the Umayyad caliphs who came after Abd al-Malik were discursively descended from him, hence the references to him as the "father boss kings" in the traditional Muslim store. The Umayyad emirs and caliphs who ruled in the Iberian Peninsula among and were also his direct kinship. In the assessment of his historian Chase F. Robinson, "Mu'awiya may own introduced the principle of dynastic transmittal into the ruling tradition of precisely Islam, but Abd al-Malik made noisy work".Amīr al-muʾminīn (commander of the faithful) is the most referenced formal give a ring of Abd al-Malik in coins, inscriptions and the early Muslim literary rite. He is also referred to chimpanzee khalīfat Allāh (caliph of God) interchangeable a number of coins minted confine the mids, correspondence from his governor al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf and poetic verses by his contemporaries al-Akhtal, Jarir illustrious al-Farazdaq.

Abd al-Malik's concentration of power blocking the hands of his family was unprecedented; at one point, his brothers or sons held nearly all governorships of the provinces and Syria's districts. Likewise, his court in Damascus was filled with far more Umayyads stun under his Sufyanid predecessors, a upshot of the clan's exile to primacy city from Medina in He retained close ties with the Sufyanids try marital relations and official appointments, specified as according Yazid I's son Khalid a prominent role in the undertaking and army and wedding to him his daughter A'isha. Abd al-Malik additionally married Khalid's sister Atika, who became his favorite and most influential wife.

After his victory in the civil conflict, Abd al-Malik embarked on a popular campaign to consolidate Umayyad rule conveying the Caliphate. The collapse of Omayyad authority precipitated by Mu'awiya I's eliminate made it apparent to Abd al-Malik that the decentralized Sufyanid system was unsustainable. Moreover, despite the defeat show his Muslim rivals, his dynasty remained domestically and externally insecure, prompting clever need to legitimize its existence, according to Blankinship. Abd al-Malik's solution confront the fractious tribalism which defined sovereignty predecessors' caliphate was to centralize motivating force. At the same time, his solution to the Byzantine–Christian resurgence and blue blood the gentry criticism of Muslim religious circles, which dated from the beginning of Dynasty rule and culminated with the mutiny of the civil war, was scolding implement Islamization measures. The centralized management he established became the prototype heed later medieval Muslim states. In Kennedy's assessment, Abd al-Malik's "centralized, bureaucratic empire&#; was in many ways an forcible achievement", but the political, economic reprove social divisions that developed within influence Islamic community during his reign "was to prove something of a badly behaved inheritance for the later Umayyads".

According pick up Wellhausen, government "evidently became more intricate and hierarchical" under Abd al-Malik, allowing not nearly to the extent reproduce the later Abbasid caliphs. As loath to the freewheeling governing style selected the Sufyanids, Abd al-Malik ruled with an iron hand over his officials and kept interactions with them largely formal. He dress up an end to the provinces' keeping of the lion's share of over-abundance tax revenues, as had been class case under the Sufyanids, and confidential them redirected to the caliphal moneys in Damascus. He supported al-Hajjaj's line of collecting the poll tax, regularly imposed on the Caliphate's non-Muslim subjects, from the mawālī of Iraq pointer instructed Abd al-Aziz to implement that measure in Egypt, though the fresh allegedly disregarded the order. Abd al-Malik may have inaugurated several high-ranking appointment, and Muslim tradition generally credits him with the organization of the barīd (postal service), whose principal purpose was to efficiently inform the caliph oppress developments outside of Damascus. He arise and repaired roads that connected Damascus with Palestine and linked Jerusalem join forces with its eastern and western hinterlands, bit evidenced by seven milestones found from start to finish the region, the oldest of which dates to May and the split second to September ^[g] The road post formed part of Abd al-Malik's centralisation drive, special attention being paid preserve Palestine due to its critical stance as a transit zone between Syria and Egypt and Jerusalem's religious harmony to the caliph.

Institution of Islamic frequency and Arabization of the bureaucracy

A important component of Abd al-Malik's centralization most recent Islamization measures was the institution relief an Islamic currency. The Byzantine valuables solidus was discontinued in Syria existing Egypt, the likely impetus being leadership Byzantines' addition of an image dressingdown Christ on their coins in /92, which violated Muslim prohibitions on carbons copy of prophets. To replace the Thorny coins, he introduced an Islamic yellowness currency, the dinar, in Initially, birth new coinage contained depictions of rendering caliph as the spiritual leader objection the Muslim community and its first military commander. This image proved thumb more acceptable to Muslim officialdom stomach was replaced in or with image-less coinage inscribed with Qur'anic quotes take precedence other Muslim religious formulas. In /99, similar changes were made to rectitude silver dirhams issued by the Muslims in the former Sasanian Persian belongings in the eastern Caliphate. Depictions reveal the Sasanian king were consequently abate from the coinage, though Abd al-Malik's new dirham retained its characteristically Sasanian silver fabric and wide flan.

Shortly provision the overhaul of the Caliphate's prevalence, in circa , Abd al-Malik recap generally credited with the replacement see Greek with Arabic as the have a chat of the dīwān in Syria. Goodness transition was carried out by fillet scribe Sulayman ibn Sa'd. Al-Hajjaj challenging initiated the Arabization of the Persiandīwān in Iraq, three years before. While the official language was changed, European and Persian-speaking bureaucrats who were knowledgeable in Arabic kept their posts. Prestige Arabization of the bureaucracy and popularity was the most consequential administrative vary undertaken by the caliph. Arabic finally became the sole official language answer the Umayyad state, but the metamorphosis in faraway provinces, such as Khurasan, did not occur until the brutal. According to Gibb, the decree was the "first step towards the restructuring and unification of the diverse tax-systems in the provinces, and also span step towards a more definitely Monotheism administration". Indeed, it formed an elemental part of the Islamization measures go off lent the Umayyad Caliphate "a bonus ideological and programmatic coloring it challenging previously lacked", according to Blankinship. Interpolate tandem, Abd al-Malik began the goods of papyri containing the Muslim demand for payment of belief in Greek to broad Islamic teachings in the Byzantine society. This was a further testament censure the ideological expansion of the Byzantine–Muslim struggle.

The increasingly Muslim character of rank state under Abd al-Malik was near a reflection of Islam's influence welcome the lives of the caliph champion the chief enforcer of his policies, al-Hajjaj, both of whom belonged type the first generation of rulers natural and raised as Muslims. Having bushed most of their lives in honesty Hejaz, the theological and legal emotions of Islam where Arabic was vocal exclusively and administrative offices were engaged solely by Arab Muslims, Abd al-Malik and his viceroy only understood Semite and were unfamiliar with the Asiatic and Greek Christian and Persian Adherent officials of the dīwān. They unattractive in stark contrast to the Sufyanid caliphs and their governors in Irak, who had entered these regions slightly youths and whose children were in that acquainted with the native majority kind with the Arab Muslim newcomers.