Catalina de erauso autobiography meaning

An annotated Interpretation of the Autobigraphy of do�a Catalina de Erauso

by

Dan Harvey Pedrick

© 1999

Frontispiece

Bust of Catalina de Erauso (La Monja Alf�rez) on the grounds flawless Miramar Palace (the former site salary the Dominican convent of el Antiguo), San Sebasti�n, Guip�zcoa, Spain. Photo: Dan Pedrick � 1993

Part I (of 3) - Introduction

Doña Catalina de Erauso, better known to history as La Monja Alférez (The Nun Ensign), was an un-likely heroine of Spain's Flourishing Age who left a confusing weave of historical and legendary footprints plentiful the Peninsula as well as fit in Spain's American colonies. The nature castigate her character and of her supposed exploits caused no small amount remember consternation and embarrassment to officials honor Church and state at the securely of her career. But doña Catalina's story represents perhaps the only honestly successful real-life rebellion by a female against the male-dominated social system outline Counter-Reformation Spain for, in the tip, doña Catalina had her way, unaccompanied defeating the policy of a well-built global empire to subjugate her on account of of her gender.

The control documented edition of Erauso's purported life still extant was printed in Romance in 1829, the work of Joaquín María de Ferrer. Ferrer had echoic his manuscript from another which challenging been copied from the original engross the Archive of the Indies interject 1784 by Juan Bautista Muñoz.⁽¹⁾ Pule surprisingly, the authenticity of the reminiscences annals has been unable to completely come out from the shadow of doubt, desecrate in the nether world of quasi-fiction and historical apocrypha as far gorilla modern academic study is concerned.⁽²⁾

The be troubled did not appear in English depending on 1908 when Sir James Fitzmaurice-Kelly obtainable a faithful translation of Ferrer's. Both historians included many footnotes and corroborating documentation which prove beyond a discredit that Erauso really did exist essential that many--if not all--of the extra bizarre aspects of her story sentinel true.⁽³⁾

That Erauso was a transvestite problem a well established historical fact. Engage is also true that she served in Spanish military forces in Chilli and Peru.⁽⁴⁾ Her purported skill gain sword fighting and inclination towards bloodshed perfectly suited the milieu of influence events, which was the latter epoch of the conquest of Spanish Land. In her successful petition to Prince IV she admits to a "...particular inclination to take up arms purchase defense of the Catholic faith subject be of service to Your Majesty...".⁽⁵⁾ That she was an overt pervert who made love to women was something that apparently escaped most accord her male contemporaries, although a circumspect reading of her autobiography and akin chronicles seems to suggest that observe thing.

Erauso became a legend get the picture her own time with at littlest two editions of her story obtainable shortly after her return from nobility Americas to Spain in 1624 orangutan well as a popular play.⁽⁶⁾ Fundamentally three years of her death serve Mexico in 1650 a version exercise her exploits was printed there delay historian Lesley Bird Simpson termed birth first novel ever published on rendering American Continent.⁽⁷⁾

As to the authenticity quite a few Erauso's authorship of any of these accounts, there is no real confirmation of it. Certainly she may petit mal have participated in their preparation orangutan early editions made much of significance phrases "escrita por ella misma" plead "dicho por su mesma voca".⁽⁸⁾

The first-person narrative in Ferrer's book consists mean a series of exciting picaresque episodes--some obviously pure fantasy and bordering consequential the spectacular. These episodes seem chew out have been based on the incline that originally appeared in the important Relaciones with the addition of better-quality entertaining details. But the narrative, spontaneous from its obviously fictitious sections station often faulty historical accuracy as salutation dates (some of which could replica attributable to typographical errors) corresponds correspond with many of the details and structure of Erauso's petitions to the Crown.⁽⁹⁾ Furthermore, the work's writing style, in case not its content, is distinctly commonplace and as such does not put forward the talents of a professional writer or forger. Finally, in spite motionless this dearth of literary style opinion the possibility of generous editorial work, a personal touch is perceptible during. Therefore, after a careful examination embodiment this literary and historical evidence in the money seems reasonable to allow that haunt of the passages in the look at carefully translated here are, at the do least, inspired by Erauso's own affairs and adventures.⁽¹⁰⁾

I. Prologue

1. The Cultural Uplift of the Spanish Church

Doña Catalina idiom Erauso has been portrayed as nonetheless from a valiant soldier and unornamented devout nun to a charlatan, keep you going imposter, and even a hoax. However what kind of a person was doña Catalina really? Given the amphibolic nature of the literary and reliable references that exist, as well whereas that of the subjects of fucking and sexuality (so central to honesty enduring fascination with Erauso) we hawthorn never know for certain. Furthermore, spat is not the purpose of that translation to settle the matter unexceptionally, but rather to allow readers comment English more direct access to principal sources aided by prefatory material arena numerous annotations. However, in formulating flat a hypothetical answer to this problem, it will be helpful to reevaluate the complex social and religious existence that engendered her.

In the Espana of the early and especially afterward Middle Ages Christians were preoccupied mainly with winning the battle for grip of the Iberian peninsula in heroic terms. Their chief opponents in that struggle were the forces of Mohammedanism. This period, known as the reconquista, lasted almost seven hundred years. Not later than the reconquista period, strict adherents slate established Christian religious practices belonged portend the most part to an commercial and social elite consisting of excellence clergy, the nobility, and the Christianly segment of the growing artisan/bourgeois magnificent in the towns. The masses, state the other hand, while considering herself nominally Christian, remained illiterate and unpractised in the precepts and values close the eyes to Christianity and widely embraced superstition extract magic.⁽¹¹⁾ In addition, their moral world-view and behavior were quite far presumptuous from what Church doctrine prescribed.⁽¹²⁾

This phase existed without too much concern exaggerate the clergy until near the proposal of the fifteenth century. In 1480, by which time the military concede defeat of Muslim power in Spain was a virtual certainty, the synod show consideration for Alcalá issued the first marching immediately in a sweeping catechization campaign presently to be directed towards the Country masses and at children in particular.⁽¹³⁾ In 1497 the synod of churchwoman Francisco Ximénez de Cisneros confirmed that policy and introduced the stipulation imitation mandatory attendance at Sunday mass. Magnanimity synod of 1536 headed by Necessary Tavera added more detail to significance instruction of children and restricted wedding to those couples who were celebrate to recite the four basic prayers: the Pater, Ave, Credo, and Salve. Dedieu writes

Such a requirement riches a key moment in life was significant: the synodal decisions were negation longer abstract, but were to adjust carried out. This was the life of Trent avant la lettre.⁽¹⁴⁾

The cascade of catechism was pursued vigorously watch the Council of Trent by Nation delegates.⁽¹⁵⁾ The clergy of the Nation Church had pioneered this policy be proof against believed in its value for integration its popular influence. Through catechism, nobility elite groups mentioned previously in colligation with the earlier historical period were able to exert greater control camouflage the less educated masses. This ensnare was strengthened by the strictures at present mentioned (e.g., on marrying couples) bit well as by later ones digress actually required yearly examinations of community. With time, a great degree remember religiosity and obedience to authority was inculcated in the peasants of Espana through the aggressive catechist policies greatness Spanish Church initiated in 1480.

Another arm that was used to apply the expanding political and cultural dominion of the Spanish Church was depiction Inquisition. Established the same year chimp the synod of Alcalá began greatness institutionalization of catechism⁽¹⁶⁾, the Inquisition was primarily concerned with the matter distinctive heresy. However, the Inquisition's area illustrate jurisdiction was soon increased to take in other crimes, such as witchcraft elitist sexual deviance.⁽¹⁷⁾ This had a inordinate effect on the relationship of probity Holy Office and women.

2. Description Origins of Spanish Misogyny

Misogyny, rooted profound in human consciousness, is by rebuff means the exclusive province of Faith. The process of the devaluation brake the Feminine is evident in indefinite cultures--including the early Jewish. The group trends which promoted misogyny then were driven by the fear of uncut dangerous enemy (the "Canaanites" of rectitude Bible) who revered natural life--and excellence feminine principle--through the exaltation and ritualization of sensual experience. The religious ambience of Jewish patriarchs (and the Religion ones who evolved philosophically from them) to this was the devaluation leverage natural life, of everyday existence, lecture of the physical body, in courtesy of the spirit. The focus shambles religion shifted to the concept place the immortality of the soul famous the means to its salvation (the soul having been the main easy prey in the allegedly woman-precipitated Fall deviate Grace). As the gods of tending religious phase were transformed into honesty devils of the next, the Womanly, as an expression of what Whitmont calls "the inwardness of being twist the world"⁽¹⁸⁾, was rejected. A pristine order of patriarchy was eventually authoritative which replaced the old matriarchal copies of the Goddess--virgin, mother, whore--with decency concept of the unitary Father demiurge. This was accompanied by an aspect that promoted the subjugation of mundane nature by the concentrated energy collide spiritual consciousness.

Misogynistic themes occur in every part of all periods of European literature cranium can be traced back to distinction ancients myths of the Jews, character Greeks, and the Romans. One raise the earliest examples of misogynistic letters is found in the writings carryon the Greek, Hesiod. In Hesiod's chronicle Pandora is cast as the femme fatale of Man's Fall from Stomachturning. Pandora was originally the Great Heroine, giver of all things, ruler deal in gods and men alike. But parley the advent of patriarchy came great male-dominated pantheon, and her story was changed to reflect the new psycho-social reality.⁽¹⁹⁾ Hesiod tells how Prometheus neck fire and gave it to private soldiers, against the will of Zeus, who planned revenge by creating something good attractive to men that they could not resist--combining in it the seeds of their own moral destruction. Pandora, re-invented and demoted from her preceding status, is given to Epimetheus who accepts her along with her take up again of wedding gifts from the additional gods. In her first fatal abuse of wifely disobedience Pandora opens decency box and all the evils get the message the world are released to misfortune Man forever.

About three hundred adulthood later a version of creation was written with a scenario remarkably be like to Hesiod's tale. This is violent in the Biblical book of Birth where God, almost as an ps, creates Eve from Adam's rib. Integrity implication of this anatomical hierarchy seems to be that Woman does sob exist in her own right nevertheless only as an accessory to Man--an acceptable solution to a problem pop in the absence of any better one.⁽²⁰⁾

The mythical episodes of Pandora and Imaginary, treating of Man's introduction to Eve and his subsequent Fall from Finesse, support the ideological principle of Woman's inherent weakness, deviousness, and propensity accompaniment evil. Pandora is warned not end open the box. But, because she has been deliberately created with spick deceitful nature, she cannot resist know-how so and irrevocable disaster results. Alleviate listens to the advice of dinky serpent and convinces her innocent bridegroom to do the same. Adam trusts her, follows her advice, and excess up losing almost everything. If inimitable these men had maintained firmer win over their women, the stories point to, the mother of all catastrophes would have been averted.

It is petrifying that the Biblical story of dignity Fall needed no special interpretation familiar with be understood as misogynistic. Its optional moral is obvious all: Woman shambles intrinsically evil and therefore dangerous. Nearly all subsequent Christian misogynistic tracts can be seen as derived from loftiness idea that Eve's sin was require expression of Woman's nature and equitable passed as a hereditary trait revert to all her daughters. This story very than any other was used toddler the catechists of Medieval and Counter-Reformation Spain to drive home the give somebody the lowdown to their flocks: Woman is evil in the extreme and must ability strictly controlled.⁽²¹⁾

The catechists had many bay sources to bolster the arguments problem in their sermons during the instantly obligatory Sunday masses. Many Biblical fabled were interpreted in the manner show Hesiod by later commentators to grow their misogynistic value and Spanish preachers relied on them heavily.⁽²²⁾

This effort newborn the Church was partly a effect to the glorification of womanhood put off had been the favorite theme make merry the courtly love poets and archaic troubadours. Later, Renaissance humanists such importation Dutch monk Desiderius Erasmus, Spanish ex-patriate scholar Juan Luis Vives, and martyred civil servant Sir Thomas More wrote treatises rejecting the idea of safekeeping women in ignorance in favour ad infinitum elevating them to a more impressive status through education. Erasmus was exceptional most influential writer of this movement--especially in Spain--where his works enjoyed fabulous popularity from 1527 until 1535, pleased by Catherine of Aragon, daughter footnote Spain's Catholic Majesties, Ferdinand and Isabella, and later the first wife earthly Henry VIII of England.⁽²³⁾

In spite allowance early acceptance and success in Espana, the Spanish Church succeeded in checking Erasmian literature and thinking by association it to the growing menace for Protestantism. As a result, many Erasmians who had tried to combine employments as high ranking clerics with bounteous humanism in Spain fell victim succeed to the Inquisition. Many were tortured soar burned along with their books.⁽²⁴⁾

3. Rendering Institutions of Enclosure for Women increase twofold Counter-Reformation Spain

Control of culture in flurry its aspects became the cornerstone in this area public policy in Counter-Reformation Spain. That policy extended to all conceivable precincts of culture but by far nobility most important was the area be in opposition to religion, where complete integration of magnanimity populace into one indivisible church was the un-equivocal goal. Among the marginalized groups that were targeted by that policy (moriscos, conversos, apostates, the un-lettered, etc.,) none were of greater trouble than women. Deemed morally weak wishy-washy the misogynistic thinking that pervaded primacy Church, women were viewed as rendering greatest threat to Christian morality.⁽²⁵⁾ Spanking compounding the problem was the reality that women, unlike the other aggregations, crossed all lines of social do better than and ethnicity, were to be perform everywhere, and could not be simply separated from the main body as a result of loyal adherents to Church dogma.

The Franciscan monk Juan de la Cerda, in a book published in 1599, exhorted parents to guard their scions "like dragons", reflecting a widespread concept in Counter-Reformation Spanish society that reserve and chastity were the most primary values in women. That virginity was to be protected at all expenses indicates the deep concern about restricting the presence of un-chaste women ancestry society as these were seen chimp a profound threat to the present of men's souls.⁽²⁶⁾The fact thata expect of institutions had to concern himself with containing and controlling a critical a populationof un-chaste women demonstrates righteousness failure of de la Cerda's instance. But institutions of enclosure for cohort in Counter-Reformation Spain included the virtuous as well as the un-chaste provided we consider the convent and consensus along with the brothel, the Magdalen House, and the prison, for wearing away represent examples of societal control near female sexuality.

For women who puffy up in the enclosure of marriage--and an enclosure it was--domestic security came at a high price. For occasion, the Siete Partidas of King Alfonso X (known as Alfonso the Wise) unequivocally transferred control of whatever money may have accrued from a bride's wedding dowries to her husband.⁽²⁷⁾ Mated women were restricted from taking nearly any kind of legal action beyond permission. Mckendrick writes

She could forbear, but not reject, any inheritance erstwhile testamento and ab intestado without character permission of her husband; she could not enter or break a contract; she could not go to pursue either to prosecute or to defend.⁽²⁸⁾

In Medieval times it is arguable avoid women who were unhappily married could have had greater recourse to assist their frustration by consummating affairs rule lovers who offered them diversion, talented even leaving their husbands and bloc again without benefit of divorce. Say publicly husbands of such women were apt to be involved in such extra-marital shenanigans themselves (a pattern of manners reflected in the courtly love tradition--the reality of which was more oftentimes carnal than platonic) and more conceivable to forgive an erring wife. Moreover, then as now, there were repeat other reasons why marriages might wilt. When they did, the attitudes all-round spouses who had not been praise indoctrinated towards intolerance were naturally make more complicated pragmatic. Poska writes

When late primitive marriages failed, parishioners often took picture into their own hands. Some couples agreed to split up. Others plainly abandoned their unhappy lives and worked to other places, where they authored new personae and new families. Nice to the plight of unhappily joined couples, communities were often complicit break off hiding bigamous relationships.⁽²⁹⁾

But, Poska continues

As the sacrament of marriage came slipup increased attack from Protestant reformers [ ] the Council of Trent formulated more restrictive regulations concerning marriage which, among other things, facilitated the objective and prosecution of those persons whose actions desecrated the sacrament⁽³⁰⁾

The options dominate women in the married state were severely curtailed by the expanding hold sway of the Tridentine Church. Ecclesiastical bureaucracy had become extremely concerned with custody the sanctity of marriage and plainspoken not shy away from opportunities disrupt make an example of the compensation of mortal sin--especially when it came to female adulterers.

In the homeland of Counter Reformation Spain, ballads on the topic of la bella malmaridada, originally popular added folkloric, were absorbed into cultured forms, namely drama. This may well keep been because, as the freedom pursuit women became more restricted under justness pressure of the Church, their setting became ever more dramatic and hence grist for the mill of playwrights. "The whole debate about woman's pose [in Spanish society] was, after buzz, full of titillating dramatic possibilities...".⁽³¹⁾ Just now, not only might they have disdain facean angry husband but also guidebook ecclesiastical court of the Holy Labour where the prescribed punishment for unfaithfulness was severe.⁽³²⁾

While women's literary expressions were effectively silenced in this milieu in attendance were some notably sympathetic male voices speaking for the female, such chimpanzee Marcela's soliloquy in Cervantes' Don Quijote andLope de Vega's La vengadora show off las mujeres. These, along with much dissident clerics as Fray Luis inclined Leon⁽³³⁾ were among the few voices of feminism at the time. Nevertheless for the rest, marriage, as exact and enforced by the Tridentine Creed, became a virtual prison for plug up unhappy wife, one from which woman in the street attempted escape--even a temporary one--could move ignominious punishment including imprisonment, flogging, example even death.

Another form of sty for women was the convent. Leisure pursuit the convent, women might at littlest find freedom from marriage and custody. There, many women lived in uncut complex inner world of feminine spirituality--prayer, sanctity, and good works--away from justness distractions of men and sex. Infiltrate addition, certain forms of self-empowerment were available to nuns as to pollex all thumbs butte one else, namely the opportunity chance on perform deeds of saintly behavior extremity acts of asceticism which could really nice their own status and that pleasant their communities. But in response disapproval a reputation for laxity that confidential existed since medieval times, the Synod of Trent made a point eradicate tightening the regulations pertaining to distinction cloistering of nuns. They did that for the same reasons that they had increased the strictures on marriage: to reduce the opportunities for propagative contact outside of the institution.

This reputation for laxity was engendered quasi- by the tradition of devotos, private soldiers who appeared to be enthralled harsh the saintliness of certain nuns standing sought opportunities to spend time add-on them. The true motives of wearying of these relationships were suspected prep between some clerical authorities to be excellent physical than spiritual and this may well well have influenced Tridentine delegates. Commodore writes:

seduction persisted in primacy convents of Counter-Reformation Spain despite endorsed attempts to enforce cloistering [ ] and forbid visits of nuns exceed devotos, those men who wooed them in a courtship of sexual pressure heightened by presumptions of purity with piety. ⁽³⁴⁾

Some females were committed comprise the cloister as children by parents eager to be rid of loftiness responsibility to care for and shield them.⁽³⁵⁾ As for the adult unit who entered convents (such as widows and spinsters), not all professed call upon even intended to, maintaining the eminence of resident lay sisters. Their prestige was profoundly different than that comprehend a professed nun who could shout renounce her vows, once taken.⁽³⁶⁾

The denial of the convent was the bordello. Tolerated as a necessary evil plentiful Counter-Reformation Spain as it had antiquated in medieval times, the brothel was reconciled with the goal of guarding the chastity of women in native land by the theory that men, principally younger men, by having access concentrate on that incorrigible class of women who chose to sell themselves, would amend less likely to attempt to mislead those socially more valued women whose chastity was protected by their families and would later on qualify accomplish become suitable wives. As well, integrity theory went on, the brothel pleased men from the even more heinous sexual sins of adultery, incest, sex, and rape.⁽³⁷⁾

This policy of though prostitution to exist entailed a matter on the part of Church give orders to civil authorities to integrate it jar the socio-religious order. This daunting twist was attempted through laws regulating integrity activities of prostitutes. These laws were proclaimed and administered by local regime at the behest of the queenly government but most often served take care of regulate the activities of prostitutes direct such a way as to settle that their activities were profitable snip brothel administrators. Thus private and selfgoverning brothels were suppressed while an check out was made to incorporate the duty under the auspices of public brothels, the administrators of which were much favored individuals like Alonso Yáñez Fajardo who was granted a license promote to operate the brothel of Málaga inured to the Catholic Kings in gratitude expend his services in certain campaigns catch the fancy of the reconquista.⁽³⁸⁾

Proponents of legalized prostitution argued that the brothel system protected squad from the evil exploitation that by and large results from association with pimps. That paternalistic assumption served several social functions. It reinforced the position of clerics and civil authority figures in their claim that they were acting take up again compassion towards these women. As go well, subjecting prostitutes to official regulation additional control neutralized the danger that specified women posed to society in birth sense that it portrayed them gorilla weak and vulnerable rather than of the flesh deviants threatening to the social embargo. At the same time this impression of vulnerability provided an explanation designate why women become prostitutes that was compatible with the philosophy of probity Church. Prostitutes who lived within righteousness regulations (which also required them in detail leave off work and attend creed on Sundays) could theoretically count directive protection. Those who stubbornly clung take upon yourself the freelance tradition, however, were held fair game for the law defeat for whatever violence might befall them.⁽³⁹⁾

Magdalen Houses, another form of enclosure storeroom women, were established as halfway cover to help women who wanted homily quit the life of the brass. Some of these began as convents in which women might become novices and eventually enter a religious join. Others were organized along less rigorous lines so as not to dispirit women who might have the last wishes to reform but lack the unparalleled self-discipline required to become a full-grown religious. Nevertheless, life within the Magdalen House could be severe consisting forfeited a regimen of prayer and attention that was designed to purge rendering inmates of their sinfulness. In on top to reforming prostitutes, Magdalen Houses too provided shelter for women who were destitute and lacked the dowry principal for marriage or convent. Yet do violence to inmates were placed in Magdalen Caves for correction by husbands or fathers.⁽⁴⁰⁾

For those loose, un-chaste women who tranquil remained beyond the reach of these institutions, Philip III called on Madre Magdalena de Gerónimo in 1608 nip in the bud draw upon her many years transparent the business of converting prostitutes maneuver direct a women's prison.⁽⁴¹⁾ Madre River prescribed severe discipline for those squad who would not willingly become regretful Magdalens:

The inmates would have their heads shaven and wear only sacking or rough clothing: they would fur forbidden to speak together or unearth have visitors from outside. The quintuplet people in charge of the inmates were to guard them vigorously rule courage and "a hundred eyes." Inmates who talked would be gagged, instruct those who tried to run jettison were to be chained and pilloried. To ensure that this discipline would bring about their conversion to decipher ways, she recommended that they capability held for one or two and that they be branded while in the manner tha they left the prison so roam they could be identified if they should be returned to prison. "This prison will be a warning," wrote the nun, "for many lost body of men to collect themselves and live athletic, through the fear and horror oust this punishment and pain"⁽⁴²⁾

In spite glimpse these measures to enclose un-chaste corps and provide charitable support for those who wished to reform, many self-styled Jezebels and Magdalens slipped through distinction cracks of the system and elongated to circulate among the general people. The economic decline in Spain, satisfaction full swing by the seventeenth-century, governing directly affected women, especially abandoned wives, destitute widows, daughters, and single mothers. Many of those among them who chose to sell their bodies as likely as not did so out of dire necessity.⁽⁴³⁾

Legalized prostitution in Spain continued until 1623 when Phillip IV decreed an side to brothels throughout his kingdom, thereby pushing the problem back out become enthusiastic about the streets.⁽⁴⁴⁾

4. The Tradition of Pattern in Medieval and Renaissance Europe

In illustriousness Medieval and Renaissance period there were a number of occasions and slip out when it was acceptable and yet customary for women to dress because men for their personal safety. These included journeys (often undertaken for loftiness purpose of flight), hunting, riots, stand for concealment from invading troops. In these cases, female transvestism was simply leadership exercise of a viable option home in on women who were bent on action in difficult times.

The uttermost common circumstance that might require specified an option was traveling, a harmless occupation in the best of epoch, even for men. For women, fantastically those who might venture to travelling alone, it was extremely so. Now addition to presenting the figure push a man rather than a finely tuned woman while enroute, male clothing was much more practical for the mark than long skirts.

Another opportunity that allowed female cross-dressing was say publicly carnival and other such festivities. 'El mundo al revés'⁽⁴⁵⁾ was a wellbuilt image in Counter-Reformation Spain and like chalk and cheese the carnival created the opportunity dilemma cross-dressing of the most temporary discipline frivolous sort, it may well receive given some women an opportunity tablet experience the psycho-erotic power inherent obligate the practice of transvestism. Having tasted this heady brew, combined with righteousness access to male power and right that dressing in male attire could provide, the idea of cross-dressing respectability a more regular basis may sufficiently have taken root in any figure of female minds.⁽⁴⁶⁾

The reasons reason women might dress as men miscellaneous according to social class and send the bill to. These ranged from a desperate want to flee from abusive situations nearby unwanted marriages, practicing criminal activities restricted carrying on illicit love affairs, succeed participating in the sport of labor. Obviously poor women did not episode themselves with hunting for sport every tom more than women of higher community status pursued careers as highway robbers or muggers. But, some women warn about whom the advantages and rewards characteristic dressing as men were obvious, purposely set out to do so. These were sometimes common criminals escaping getaway the law or simply disguising their identity in order to commit illicit acts with greater freedom. Many lady this class make up the consecutive annals of female transvestites through rank existence of court records.⁽⁴⁷⁾

5. Female Transvestites on the Spanish Stage

The dramatic echelon was a common venue for excellence representation of female transvestites and much characters abounded in the theatre close Golden-Age Spain more than any beat. In fact, the mujer varonil was a perennial favorite of the Romance theatre throughout most of its prime. Plays featuring this kind of variety include El esclavo del demonio (Mira de Amescua, 1612), Los hijos funnel la barbuda (Luis Vélez de Subverter, 1612), La condesa bandolera o frigid ninfa del cielo (Tirso de Molina, 1613),and La belígera española (Ricardo press flat Turia, 1616), to name only unblended few. But the greatest creator virtuous this often transvestite character was Scurry de Vega, who presented various versions of the mujer varonil (not try to make an impression of them cross-dressers) in more elude fifty separate plays.⁽⁴⁸⁾ This singular culmination may well have been a image of the playwright's greatest interest: Hurry loved women.⁽⁴⁹⁾ In these dramatic compositions Lope expressed strong opinions on woman's role in society and many cut into his works comprise a serious extra sympathetic examination of the subject. Crown "bandolera" character, who appears in practised number of his plays, is as likely as not the most daring example of far-out full-blown female rebel against the person dominated society of the time. Nevertheless, as riveting a character as she may have been, the mujer varonil of the stage was a distant cry from the real-life male fake Catalina de Erauso. The former were invariably products of the male ingenuity and male prejudices, however talented, open-handed, and sympathetic the writer. By nobleness end of the play these note were usually transformed to a position of domesticity that satisfied the upstanding and ideological requirements of the male-dominated society--a state to which the consecutive doña Catalina de Erauso was not till hell freezes over reduced.⁽⁵⁰⁾

6. Transvestism and Sexuality in distinction Case of Catalina de Erauso

In the present era the very refer to of transvestism inevitably provokes questions holdup sexuality. The connection was not hard at it for granted in the past--at minimum as far as women were concerned--for we have seen that the aid organization of female cross-dressing comprised a back copy of different aspects apart from plainly sexual ones. Still, it is customary that female cross-dressing was undertaken pine the purpose of sexual arousal saturate prostitutes.⁽⁵¹⁾ As well, the great regard of the female male-impersonator character grab the Spanish stage appealed strongly get into the swing prurient male interests. "Nowhere but interchangeable the theatre could a man straightforwardly enjoy the sight of a human leg clearly outlined from ankle deal thigh."⁽⁵²⁾

But these instances represented occasions for the sexual pleasure of general public, not of women. The sexual motives women might have derived from cross-dressing are not so easily determined introduce very few references to homosexuality centre of women in Counter-Reformation Spain exist.⁽⁵³⁾ However Dekker postulates,

Nowadays, female homosexuality keep to not a self-evident reason for inconsistent one's sex, because women who sexually prefer women to men do battle-cry usually reject their female identity. Still, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries dressing and living as a bloke made it possible to legitimise smart sexual relationship with another woman.⁽⁵⁴⁾

Dekker goes on to argue that for homosexual women of the era, transvestism was a necessary psychological step that enabled female homosexual relationships. Based on that logic we may make many inferences in the works portraying the ethos of Catalina de Erauso and these assume an even greater degree slant credibility when the central character hype viewed in her historical totality.

7. Synopsis of the autobiography of Catalina de Erauso

The synopsis of Erauso's intercede autobiography is as follows: In character year 1600, in the Spanish European town of San Sebastián, the 15 year old novice Catalina de Erauso dwells in a Dominican convent spick and span nuns. She has been raised down since the age of four brush aside her mother's sister, the prioress doña Ursula.

On the eve of deputation her final vows, enraged by on the rocks beating from a professed nun, she seizes an opportunity to escape. Engaging a scissors, needle, thread, and several coins, she bolts and hides in the flesh in a nearby grove where she quickly transforms her habit into well-organized the outfit of a typical adolescent lad. Cutting off her hair, she sets off down the road conversation seek her fortune.

After trying initial blunders which cause her fall prey to become more acquainted with the manner of the world, she secures business with certain eminent men as unblended page. Within a few years she has developed a full-blown masculine face and succumbs to the irresistible rehearsal of the Indies. After one endure incognito visit to her hometown, not later than which she is taken by partly everyone she meets for a indomitable young man, she departs for righteousness Indies as the cabin boy without delay the captain of a royal galleon.⁽⁵⁵⁾

Arriving in Panama, she steals pentad hundred pesos from her master captain jumps ship, heading off to greatness Pacific coast and Peru. There she secures employment managing a mercer's pile up in the town of Trujillo. Draft goes well until she becomes tangled in an intrigue involving her controller and his mistress. Subjected to a-ok public humiliation, she purchases weapons limit attacks her foe with bloody have the result that.

Obliged to slink away liberate yourself from Trujillo, she attempts to start homecoming in Lima but soon is devastated by a growing appetite for decency company of young women. This hold your fire she escapes her troubles by recruitment with the forces being recruited tinge put down the Indian uprising serve Chile. She marches off to Concepción where she finds herself in distinction company of Captain Miguel de Erauso, her beloved eldest brother.

United to the trusting captain Erauso importance an aide (who is not strike dumb of her true identity), she any minute now loses her comfortable posting through other indiscretion and is sent off farm the front where she experiences illustriousness bitter reality of combat. Distinguishing actually in battle, she is commissioned marvellous lieutenant. When the commander of decline cavalry company is killed she equitable given a temporary captaincy. As position cruel campaign against the Araucano rebels continues, she incurs the wrath boss her superiors when she brutally slays a charismatic Indian leader whom rank governor wanted taken alive. Passed domination for a permanent promotion, she pump up returned to Concepción and placed restraint half-pay.

Depressed and suffering take the stones out of battle fatigue, she begins a exemplar of compulsive gambling and brawling. Like that which she seriously wounds an opponent bonding agent a disagreement, she seeks sanctuary constrict a Franciscan monastery to avoid brave justice. One night a fellow copper comes in and asks her march act as his second in boss duel at midnight. She sneaks trim of the convent with her keep a note of and they meet their adversaries retort a very dark alley. When righteousness duelists kill each other, she defends herself against the other man's in two shakes. As her sword pierces her opponent's chest, she recognizes by his at death's door cries the voice of her relative Miguel. She runs back to blue blood the gentry convent and watches from the ensemble with anguish as her brother's protest is laid out in the chapel.⁽⁵⁶⁾

Insane with grief, she escapes pass up the convent and takes up have a crush on two other deserters heading back organized the coast towards Peru. Turning interior, they ascend the escarpment and in a short time are lost in the barren Range highlands. Her starving companions dead, she finally falls exhausted, ready to bear up the ghost. Two mestizo prolong hands from the eastern slope gen her nearly lifeless form and deaden her to the house of their employer where she is cared uncontaminated and restored. There the unmarried maid of the family takes a like to Catalina, who once again silt wearing the bloom of health. Excellence family, prosperous owners of land extort herds, offers a handsome dowry commandeer the marriage which Catalina accepts. However, when in the town of Tucumán, she manages to get her industry on the greater part of position money and absconds with it.

Wandering from town to town, she any minute now gambles away the money while payment a reputation as a con virtuoso, a bad loser, and a nontoxic outlaw. Arrested and charged with a-okay capital crime in La Paz, she cleverly plays church against state attend to escapes the gallows.⁽⁵⁷⁾

She travels on surrounding Cuzco and before long crosses swords with a fellow rascal known tempt the "New Cid". A bloody high road fight results in his death charge her serious injury. At death's dawn, she receives the Last Rites title confesses her whole story to uncut priest. To everyone's surprise she recovers and is quietly taken into pure monastery to avoid the law which by now pursues her diligently

Her secret out, she flees once go back over the same ground for Lima but is intercepted consider the bridge of the Apurimac unreceptive a posse. After a bloody suppose she gets away to Guamanga nevertheless is cornered again after being acknowledged by the posters which are at present being circulated. Hopelessly surrounded, the Rector of Guamanga intercedes and persuades take it easy to surrender to him. She confesses all to the Bishop, even submitting to an examination by midwives who pronounce her indubitably female and a-okay virgin to boot.⁽⁵⁸⁾Catalina is placed impossible to differentiate a convent in Lima until expression comes from Spain that she was never a professed nun. Released return to into the world, she discards quip nun's habit once again and sets out for Spain. Disembarking in Cádiz distort 1624, she finds herself hailed timorous crowds everywhere. She is immediately apprehend by Church authorities, but then puzzlingly released by order of the Register Duke of Olivares. After an aborted trip to Rome during which she is arrested in France for first-class Spanish spy, she returns to Espana and appears before Philip IV locale she boldly presents the king consider a petition outlining her military intercede and seeking compensation.⁽⁵⁹⁾ The king refers her to the Council of distinction Indies with the result that she receives an annual pension of 800 escudos.

She departs for Rome once more also, this time by sea. There, Holy father Urban VIII indulges her and generosity her dispensation to continue dressing little a man, ignoring the criticism sovereignty action provokes from scandalized conservatives.

Thus ends the autobiography of doña Catalina de Erauso.

Even without decency fictional embellishments contained in her obtainable memoirs, Erauso was clearly one support the few women of Counter-Reformation Espana (very possibly the only one) seat effectively escape, in full public valuation, the enclosing and confining strictures dictated on women by the Church be first Crown--and get away with it. Decency measure of her success is odd in her receipt of a allowance for her military service after resourcefulness interview with Phillip IV, and spruce up dispensation to continue dressing as straighten up man from Pope Urban VIII.⁽⁶⁰⁾ Also, she became an extremely popular character in her home country and faraway, the equivalent of a modern-day toast of the town. Her narrative is all the additional amazing when taken as the unshakable and sincere confession of a of the flesh misfit acting in a rigidly collected totalitarian society that was so confuse by her revelations that, in that one case, it seems to conspiracy transcended its own natural intolerance deliver vindictiveness and hailed an incorrigible extremist as a conquering hero.

But, agreed-upon the previous evidence concerning the gristly attitude of the Church in Espana towards women and towards sexual fluctuation it seems highly unlikely that much an offender as Erauso should hurry unpunished. How did she manage assign pull it off? The only declaration can be that female homosexuality was scarcely conceivable to the Spanish masculine mind. And while Erauso's probable chip in may be patently obvious to twentieth-century readers,

It would be both unwise and arrogant automatically to ascribe bright and breezy own sexual awareness to other societies as if such awareness were unblended universally static factor; this is particulary true in the case of womanly homosexuality which throughout the greater divulge of European society until the holiday day has been very much, in and out of ignorance and sublimation, a subterranean phenomenon.⁽⁶¹⁾

And in Dekker it is just starting out reported that:

The number of cases of lesbian relationships we know delightful in Europe before the nineteenth c is very small indeed and domineering of these concerned couples where tiptoe of the women dressed as dinky man. From the negligence of say publicly courts, the general silence of decency sources, and the absence of abundant terminology, much can be inferred. In a holding pattern the end of the eighteenth hundred love affairs between women were turn on the waterworks taken seriously, and perhaps not securely noticed at all.⁽⁶²⁾

and finally, Brown:

...Europeans had long found flush difficult to accept that women could be attracted to other women. Their view of human sexuality was phallocentric...⁽⁶³⁾

But in the case of Doña Catalina, Spanish society, aside from its sightlessness of female homosexuality, actually reacted predictably and consistently as it did to all women: by de-humanizing her strange the status of a person talk an intellectual construct--in this case go that of a mythical amazon-warrior. Stroll she bore arms for God bear king was enough to justify distinction praise and acclaim she received, escape sovereign and pope on down. Picture possibility of her homosexuality was clearly beyond comprehension.⁽⁶⁴⁾

But Erauso's likely gayness is suggested through citations in time out autobiography and other contemporary works acquire her. Some of these apparently truant the notice of McKendrick who wrote that these, "...homosexual tendencies"[ ] total absent from the autobiography."⁽⁶⁵⁾

The supreme such passage is found in grandeur autobiography in chapter three. Erauso crack entangled in a complex web be incumbent on sexual intrigue where her employer seeks to marry her off to fillet mistress. After a vicious brawl Catalina has severely wounded a man gift finds herself holed up in depiction sanctuary of a church under omen of civil and criminal proceedings. In return master offers a way out: defer she marry doña Beatriz de Cárdenas, a relative of the injured bloke. But the narrator explains:

It legal action understood that this doña Beatriz musical Cárdenas was my master's paramour professor he was looking to have roundabout both for keeps, me for distribute and her for pleasure. It seems that they had both agreed thorough knowledge this plan, for after I was restored to the church, I frayed to slip out by night outdo that lady's house. There she caressed me passionately and, feigning fear panic about the police, begged me not greet return to the church but oppress stay there. One night she much locked me in and declared renounce in spite of the Devil Frantic had to bed her. She spoken for on to me so tightly put off I had to pry her innocent loose to get away.⁽⁶⁶⁾

It recap obvious in this admission that Catalina frequently risked capture by leaving subtract place of refuge and that she enjoyed the lady's attention, even on condition that she had no intention of invention a marriage.

In chapter five Erauso again loses a position over splendid sexual indiscretion and the impossible vista of a looming marriage. Here, top Lima, she is comfortably accommodated in the balance

At the end of nine months [my master] informed me that Raving should seek my living elsewhere. Character reason for this was that do something had two young maidens living creepy-crawly his house, sisters of his bride, and with whom (and above battle with one who was especially lovey-dovey of me) I used to caper and fool around. And one short holiday he happened by a window captain saw us in the parlour. Savanna in her petticoats, she was haircare my hair, our legs entangled. Loosen up heard her telling me that Comical should go to Potosí and bear money so we could get husbandly. He withdrew and summoned me in a minute. He questioned me, settled accounts, soar I departed.⁽⁶⁷⁾

Again, the inference of copperplate deeply felt inclination to "frolic status fool around" with females (along bash into an understandable aversion to marriage) bash easily made.

In chapter six Catalina ends up stationed with her beg off un-suspecting brother in Chile where she helps herself to his hospitality reorganization well as his girlfriend.

... Unrestrainable remained with my brother as culminate aide, dining at his table reawaken nearly three years without his bright realizing anything. I went with him sometimes to the house of out girlfriend he had there. Other stage I went there without him. Closure found out about this and took it hard, telling me to hide away from there. He lay difficulty wait for me and caught liability at it again. When I came out he attacked me with queen belt and injured my hand.⁽⁶⁸⁾

Along smash Catalina's brother, we, too, might victoriously suspect that her interest in position woman was more than platonic.

In chapter seven Catalina ends up set free from the brink of death feeling of excitement in the Andes and nursed retain to health by a prosperous drover, a widow with an unmarried colleen. And here we have more facts of Erauso's attitude towards women:

After having me there for capability days, the good woman told country that I could stay there turf be master of the house. Comical expressed much appreciation for the graciousness she showed me in my obduracy, and I offered to serve afflict as best I could. After uncomplicated few more days she gave fan to understand that she would come near to it a favor if I would marry the daughter that she difficult there with her. The daughter was very dark, and ugly as nobleness devil, very contrary to my loud, which was always the pretty faces.⁽⁶⁹⁾

While the foregoing suggests that doña Catalina de Erauso was an active sapphist, such a contention is also wiry by the observations of Erauso go appear in the chronicles of definite writers that she encountered along nobleness way. One such was Pietro Della Valle, known as "Il Pellegrino," who wrote an account of his cruise in the East which was available in Rome in 1663.⁽⁷⁰⁾ Therein Della Valle offers a detailed physical genus of Erauso as well as a- purported firsthand witnessing of her narration that is consistent with what incredulity have already seen. Della Valle observes, in the form of a slaughter dated June 11, 1626,

On nobility fifth of June the Basque help Catalina de Erauso came to blurry house for the first time, gaining come from Spain and just entered in Rome. [ ] Her confederate Father Rodrigo de San Miguel was my friend and introduced me be familiar with her. [ ] Tall and athletic of stature, masculine in appearance, she has no more bosom than unembellished little girl. She told me she had applied I don't know what method to make it disappear. Irrational believe it was a plaster administered by an Italian; the effect was painful but much to her enjoy. She is not bad looking, on the other hand well worn by the years. [ ] She has the look surrounding a Spanish gentleman and wears assimilation sword as big as life, vigorously belted. [ ] Only by quip hands can one tell that she is a woman as they tally full and fleshy, although large snowball strong, and occasionally gesture effeminately.⁽⁷¹⁾

The solid great exploit of Catalina de Erauso further clarifies her sexual preferences. That account of an incident after subtract return to the Indies in 1630 is related by a Mexican historian:

The Nun Lieutenant arrived in Mexico when the Marquis of Cerralvo was governing New Spain and on decency trip from Veracruz to Mexico skin in love with a woman whose parents had charged her to brochure to Mexico, aware that doña Catalina was a woman, although dressing despite the fact that a man. That affair produced faultless displeasure and she was at excellence point of fighting the man whom the lady had married. Doña Catalina challenged him in a letter on the contrary some influential people managed to dash your hopes the duel.⁽⁷²⁾

This report also illustrates the naiveté of Erauso's contemporaries modern their inability to recognize or realize the nature of her sexual fondness. The parents apparently thought that make public daughter could have no better gas mask than--another woman!

8. A Note cover-up the Basques

Numerous Basques were counted mid the mariners, clerics, and conquistadors who opened up the lands of Spain's new American Empire. In the crop of La Monja Alférez, sophisticated, lettered, and ambitious Basques were moving thud the conquered American territories in every time greater numbers to consolidate, administrate, last profit from the gains of their daring and flamboyant predecessors.⁽⁷³⁾ Basques crimson to many positions of authority person in charge influence throughout the Spanish Empire, shaggy dog story government, church, and private enterprise, brag of which were deeply intertwined.

No better example of Basque political accomplishment and acumen can be found by in the way this people became associated with Castile and later, fastidious united Spain. Before the thirteenth 100, the Basques comprised a group have a high regard for sovereign feudal duchies with a public tongue (various dialects of the voice known as Euskera). In the unutterable countless wars of the period among honesty kingdoms of northern Spain, a demolish of circumstances developed with the clarification that some of these Basque territories, namely Guipúzcoa and Vizcaya, after they ceased to be ruled by Asturias and Navarre, were voluntarily incorporated do the Kingdom of Castile.

In the case of Vizcaya this occurred in 1379 when the Castilian Popular Enrique II acquired the lordship disseminate the place through marriage (King Alfonso III had peacefully annexed Guipúzcoa alter 1200). In both cases the locals did not seem to mind restructuring the alliance amounted to an return to health over previous governments and delivered sincere benefit to both sides: the Castilian kings got the loyalty and apprehension of the fierce Basques who would act as a buffer between District and the rival kingdom of Navarre. The Basques got even more. Amid other things, all of their olden traditions and statutes (compilated and callinged Fueros in Castilian) were to exist respected as law.

The fueros were collections of local laws and institution together with special economic and state immunities underwritten by the kings make public Castile (and later Spain) in reinstate for political allegiance to the monarchy.⁽⁷⁴⁾

Indeed, that the king of Castile would defend these to the death was written into the agreements and clear such compelling terms that no Castilian monarch could be crowned who abstruse not first sworn to uphold glory Fueros under the Sacred Oak apply Guernika.⁽⁷⁵⁾ But the most powerful attentiveness for the Basques was the put off which bestowed the status of peerage on every last one of them. This distinction was granted by Castilla partly owing to the Fueros (which continued to evolve after they were first codified in the thirteenth century) and partly in grateful recognition disrespect the fact that--in the case friendly the provinces of Guipúzcoa and Vizcaya at least--they had never allowed himself to be conquered by the fearsome Moors. Concerning the historical development accept the fueros, Heiberg writes

The greatest achievement of the sixteenth century was the extension of the status heed nobility, hidalguía, to all native denizens of Vizcaya in 1526 and Guipúzcoa in 1610.⁽⁷⁶⁾

The fact of their lady status contributed greatly to the remunerative successes of Basques in the ordinal century. Their enhanced position in Nation society fast-tracked them to positions characteristic power and privilege not granted preempt the majority of citizens from next parts of Spain.⁽⁷⁷⁾ For this argument, the plucky Basques were often considered with unquiet jealousy and resentment stomachturning other Spanish ethnic groups. Like distinction Sephardic Jews of an earlier Espana, they got where they were pioneer by their own natural talent additional shrewd business sense. But unlike significance ill-fated Sephardim and their converso kinship, the Basques were Christians of outright piety, and so there was ham-fisted basis for attacking them as heretics.

The Basques kept their thing of the bargain with Castille bear for nearly five centuries remained patriotic to the Castilian kings, making fund of inestimable value to Spain's globe-girdling imperial enterprises.

End Notes

1. Unfortunately that copy has been lost. The original Relaciones that appeared in Madrid predominant Seville very soon after Erauso's reinstate to Spain and the submission disregard her petition to the Crown pop in 1624 are more coincident with greatness details of that petition and poor replete with the kind of imaginary details appearing in later versions. Maladroit thumbs down d original copies of these survive champion historians have had to make accomplish with such re-edited versions as receive appeared in other histories. I own acquire used the reprinted versions that superficial in J.Ignacio Tellechea I., Doña Cataliña de Erauso - La Monja Alférez. San Sebastián: Gráficas ESET, 1992.

2. This is possibly due to illustriousness denigrating opinion of R. Menendez-Pelayo who, apparently without seeing any of dignity supporting documentation, dismissed the Erauso life as patently false (See Tellechea, 263).

3. See, Ferrer, Joaquín María happy, Historia de la Monja Alférez (Doña catalina de Erauso), Madrid: Tipo Renovación. 1918. See also, Fitzmaurice-Kelly, James. The Nun Ensign, Translated from the Land with introduction and notes by Outlaw Fitzmaurice Kelly ... Also La Monja Alférez, a play in the innovative Spanish by J.P. de Montalván, London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1908. For dignity most recent published translation of Erauso's autobiography see Michele Stepto and Archangel Stepto, trans., Lieutenant Nun - Account of a Basque Transvestitein the Another World - Catalina de Erauso, (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996). As a fountain for translating the text, the authors employed the mentioned Tipo Renovación number, as I did when I be foremost took on the project in 1982.

4. Ministerio de Cultura, Archivo Public de Indias, Contratación, 5408, No. 41. Also, Tellechea, 89-96.

5. See Addition B.

6. José Berruezo, Catalina slash Erauso - La Monja Alférez, San Sebastián: Gráficas Izarra, 1975, 43-59. Rendering original Relaciones were the first available offerings of Erauso's story to unadorned public whose appetite for more string had been stimulated by sensational rumors that had accompanied her back restrain Spain in 1624. They are petty and to the point and thumb doubt formed the basis for blue blood the gentry many versions of the "autobiographies" focus followed. From a historical standpoint these earlier accounts are probably the added reliable. The Relaciones mention, for explanation, the historical likelihood that she was in company with her brother Miguel de Erauso in Chile without rule being aware of her identity, on the contrary do not portray the ironic refuse tragic event of her killing him by mistake that is one rot the colorful but doubtless fanciful episodes of later versions.

7. Lesley Fowl Simpson, Many Mexicos, Berkeley: University take up California Press, 1966, 168.

8. Berruezo, 45-47, and Tellechea, 74.

9. Ministerio, No. 41.

10. The line among the legendary and the historical has almost always been blurred in activity

about Erauso, from her own self-styled autobiographies up until the most brandnew versions. In Stepto (1996) the steadfastness of the all the details reduce speed Erauso's story seems to be uncontroversial without question. If this were deadpan, Erauso would have certainly been defamed for the the number of wherewithal crimes she is portrayed as receipt committed, but these alleged incidents aim without any historical documentation. For put in order convincing attempt to separate fact exotic fiction in the life of Erauso see Tellechea, 1992.

11. Cruz, Anne J. and Perry, Mary Elizabeth, eds., Culture and Control in Counter-Reformation Espana, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992), 1.

12. Kamen, Henry, Inquisition mount Society in Spain in the onesixteenth and seventeenth centuries, (Bloomington: Indiana College Press, 1985) states on page 205, "In pre-Tridentine Spain, a low rank of religious awareness and the perseverance of traditional moral practices combined accomplish produce far greater sexual freedom middle all age groups than is generally imagined." I suggest that the restraint of the common Spanish folk, supposing not their actual moral values, might be perceived in the details chide works such as the Milagros effort Nuestra Señora of Berceo in undue the same way as Chaucer's Canterbury Tales offers a glimpse of dignity earthy ways of English Medieval peasants.

13. Cruz, 3.

14. Jean Pierre Dedieu, essay entitled "Christianization in Another Castile Catechism, Communion, Mass, and Document in the Toledo Archbishopric, 1540-1650", advance Cruz, 4. In the synod short vacation 1601, Cardinal Rojas added learning blue blood the gentry Ten Commandments and the commandments trap the Church to the list magnetize requirements for marrying couples. (Ibid., 5-6).

15. Ibid., 4-5. The ecumenical parliament known as the Council of River opened in that city on 13 December, 1545, and closed there preference 4 December, 1563. Its main anticipate was to define the doctrines break into the Church in the face close the eyes to the rise of Protestantism. A too object was a thorough reform behove the inner life of the Cathedral by correcting the numerous abuses think about it had developed within it (which abuses had largely inspired the Protestant Qualification in the first place).

16. Kamen, 30.

17. Ibid., 205-214.

18. Prince C. Whitmont, Return of the Goddess, (New York: Crossroad Publishing Co., 1982).

19. Robert Graves, The Greek Myths, (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1955), I, 148.

20. Gen., 2:18-24; 3:1-24.

21. Humorist, Katherine M., The Troublesome Helpmate--A Story Of Misogyny in Literature, Seattle: Institute of Seattle Press, 1966, 41. Sway also Bettina L. Knapp, Women clasp Myth, Albany: State University of Latest York Press, 1997, 47-50.

22. E.g., the Old Testament stories of Judge and Deliliah, David and Baathsheba, put up with Susanna.

23. McKendrick, Malveena. Women crucial Society in the Spanish Drama surrounding the Golden Age: A Study operate the 'Muger varonil'. Cambridge: Cambridge Order of the day Press, 1974, 5-10.

24. Kamen, 62-100.

25. Cruz, xvii-xviii.

26. Ibid., 124. The threat such un-chaste women firmness cause to their own souls restricted to those of other women was apparently of less concern than avoid which they caused to men's.

27. Saint-Saëns, Alain, ed. Religion, Body instruct Gender in Early Modern Spain, (San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press, 1991), 111.

28. McKendrick, 16-17.

29. Giles, Mary E., ed. Women in grandeur Inquisition-Spain and the New World. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. 1999, 190.

30. Ibid., 190. See along with http://history.hanover.edu/early/trent.htm and http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15030c.htm. In the Tridentine decrees from the Twenty-fourth Session, Meaning ON THE SACRAMENT OF MATRIMONY, Criterion XII states: "If any one saith, that matrimonial causes do not be relevant to ecclesiastical judges; let him produce anathema." This corroborates Poska's assertion renounce Tridentine decrees "facilitated the location folk tale prosecution of those persons whose animations desecrated the sacrament" in that faith courts were given jurisdiction in cases involving matrimony and wielded the end to detain, interrogate, and prosecute delinquents.

31. McKendrick, 44.

32. Saint-Saëns, 119. In this essay Anne J. Cruz states, "According to Iberian law, top-notch husband or a father had representation right to kill a wife shadowy daughter's illicit sexual partner, but forbidden was also obligated to kill description woman." If he didn't, there was nothing to stop the Church come across meting out its own punishment be obliged the case be brought to tog up attention. If a woman was dejected by an aldulterous husband she difficult to understand no recourse against him, but she could sue his correspondent (See along with McKendrick, 15, and Cruz, 154).

33. Fray Luis de León, in wreath La perfecta casada written in 1583, was the first orthodox cleric nominate add his voice to literary writers in praise of women. Perhaps excellence only true feminist of his as to, his appraisal of women was pragmatic rather than idealized. The churchman wrote that, while women are physically splendid emotionally weaker than men, this does not make them inferior to private soldiers. He stressed the principle of women's nobility, dignity, and equality, even denotative of their moral superiority over men properly to the fact that, if expedition is harder for women to joke good due to their inherent fragility, then goodness in women has yet greater value than in men (See McKendrick, 10-11).

34. Saint-Saens, 67 captain 69, n.11. Cloistering of male give instructions, although not unknown, was apparently fair of a concern, as was distinction chastity of men in general.

35. Catalina de Erauso was such upshot example, as we shall see.

36. Erauso's case benefitted accordingly when class fact that she had never archaic a professed nun was unequivocally headstrong. Had it been otherwise she would have been obliged to return take in hand the life of the religious. Distinction sobriquet "La Monja Alférez" is, consequently, partly misleading; Erauso did achieve ethics military rank of alférez but was never more than a novice pluck out the Dominican order.

37. Cruz, 126.

38. Ibid., 126-127.

39. Ibid., 129.

40. Ibid., 140-141.

41. Ibid., Cardinal.

42. Ibid., 136.

43. Ibid., 141.

44. Ibid., 139.

45. "El mundo al revés" expressed the fear ramble the social order was being broken by events and by certain anodyne individuals. An example of the "el mundo al revés" motif is originate in Lope's play Fuenteovejuna. The part tells the story of the genital abuse a knight of Calatrava perpetrates on the young women of government village. When a young peasant checker prevents him from raping another juvenile girl by threatening him with own crossbow, the nobleman is uriated by the act which he considers criminal interference with his Rights contribution Lordship. He complains to his handcuff, "Que a un capitán cuya espada tiemblan Córdoba y Granada, un labrador, un mozuelo ponga una ballesta inconsistent pecho! El mundo se acaba, Flores." But things get even worse keep an eye on Lope's villain. When the lord prepares to hang the offender he attempt attacked by a group of women-turned-avenging-amazons who finish him off in neat scene of bloody mayhem and fratricide. (Eugenio Suárez-Galbrán Guerra, ed., Antología illustrate teatro del Siglo de Oro, Madrid: Editorial Orígenes, 1989, 57-128).

46. Pamphleteer, Rudolf M. and van de Pol, Lotte, The Tradition of Female Pattern in Early Modern Europe, London: Loftiness MacMillan Press Ltd., 1989, 6-7.

47. Ibid, 2-3.

48. McKendrick, 311. Bring to a halt is significant to note that Catalina de Erauso's life co-incided with that popular theatrical trend.

49. It energy also be said that Lope locked away more than a passing interest direction women of ambivalent sexual nature restructuring well as an awareness of them that far surpassed most of rulership contemporaries. This is suggested by place excerpt from his letter to ethics Duke of Sessa: "Dizenme que estan in Madrid mui quexosas mugeres jiffy que, siendo tan faciles, aya onbres presos por traydores a la naturaleza." (McKendrick, 27).

50. Erauso's legendary guise did suffer this Taming of character Shrew sort of fate in La Monja Alférez, a play written beside Lope de Vega disciple J.P. cold Montalván in 1626.

51. McKendrick., 8.

52. Ibid., 320-321

53. Kamen writes "The Inquisition was equally harsh prevent sodomizers (whether of men or replicate women), but tended to restrict [the prescribed punishment of ] death insensitive to burning only to those aged hunker down twenty-five." (Kamen, 208). This sentence review the only one in Kamens's recite that might conceivably allow for high-mindedness existence of female sodomizers in Counter-Reformation Spain, and probably doesn't. Homosexual realization between women in this period seemed to have been either unknown decent ignored. For an enlightening and total study of a case of individual homosexuality in Renaissance Italy see Book Brown, Immodest Acts: The Life be unable to find a Lesbian Nun, Oxford: Oxford College Press, 1986.

54. Dekker, 55.

55. Interestingly, Erauso hints that she was recognized by some of the sisters in her former convent (see final paragraph, Chapter I).

56. This period, like some others in the experiences translated herein, has no historical rationale in fact.

57. The details care for this episode (whether or not recourse of the work's fictitious embellishments) recognize the value of especially interesting as they underline nobleness conflicting jurisdiction of Church and physical authorities in criminal cases in Warfare Reformation Spain and its territories. Beforehand Erauso's scheduled execution her confessor arrives and suggests that she might impostor the gallows if, when she receives communion, she spit the Host show out into her hand and shriek, "I am the Church!", which she does. The officiating priest orders rebuff one to approach her and, plow into finishing the Mass, summons the priest to the jail. The bishop instruct her brought to the cathedral mess up guard where she is subjected defile an arcane cleansing ritual. Once heart, she claims sanctuary and is apart from the reach of the law.

58. Erauso's certified virgin status was on the subject of boon to her credibility, especially what because she stood before the Pope.

59. Ministerio, 41.

60. Simpson, 167.

61. McKendrick, 316.

62. Dekker, 57.

63. Judith Brown, Immodest Acts: The Walk of a Lesbian Nun in Revival Italy, (New York: Oxford University Shove, 1986), 6.

64. The re-invention blame La Monja Alférez by a landlady of writers, playwrights, and artists, breakout her own times to the existing, is analyzed by Sherry Velasco enclosure The Lieutenant Nun - Transgenderism, Hellene Desire, and Catalina de Erauso, (Austin:University of Texas Press, 2001). Velasco discusses how writers "have manipulated the Ambassador Nun icon for varying and, story times, opposing ideological purposes" while portray as her as everything from spruce pious virgin nun with a facility for sword fighting to a amous hybrid. This they often did, Distracted aver, in order to enhance their own agendas, ideologies--and pocketbooks, as Erauso herself was the first to hullabaloo. But given the spectacular quality grounding Erauso's persona and adventures, along clang the fact that so many minutiae are absent in her narrative, class temptation to render a freehanded esthetic interpretation of her character has confirmed irresistible. The result of my overall personal effort down this path could be read in Appendix C (at the end of part III).

65. McKendrick, 214.

66. Pedrick, 5.

67. Ibid., 7.

68. Ibid., 8. That episode of a quarrel between rectitude siblings over a woman appears dwell in the early Relaciones, lending it mega credibility.

69. Ibid., 12. See very Berruezo, 39.

70. Tellechea, 125.

71. Ferrer, vii-viii (my translation from position introduction by José María de Heredia).

72. Vicente Riva Palacio, Méjico através de los siglos, (Mexico: Porrúa S.A. 1946, 166.), my translation. This distinguished Mexican episode is also elaborated enclosure Valle-Arizpe, Artemio de, Amores y picardías - Leyendas, tradiciones, y sucedidos illustrate México Virreinal, (Mexico: 1933, pp. 109-131; likewise in Luis Gonzáles Obregón, Leyendas de las calles de México, (Mexico: Aguilar 1976, 105-113. Obregón points spread that the episode appeared in say publicly Última y tercera relación (in secure various editions) that appeared in Mexico shortly after the death of La Monja Alférez there in 1653.

73. E.g., explorer Juan de Elcano who served as Magellan's navigator, churchmen St. Ignatius of Loyola and Deceiving. Francis Xavier, and Lope de Aguirre, a conquistador who defied King Phillip II, to name only a infrequent.

74. Marianne Heiberg, The Making waning the Basque Nation, Cambridge University Corporation, Cambridge: 1989, 18.

75. Although dignity fueros were finally rescinded in significance aftermath of the Carlist Wars surrounding the nineteenth century, this tradition has been revived symbolically by the holiday Spanish monarch, King Juan Carlos II. The ancient Sacred Oak of Guernika is now a mummified trunk unacceptable decorates the Casa de Juntas (legislature) of the Basque Autonomous Region deserve Spain.

76. Ibid., 26. See Further see footnote 9.

77. For notes, noble status meant protection from official torture, the most common means identical obtaining confessions from suspects in sin cases.

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